HR: Herrick textbook, microsoft word and spellcheck
James T. Young
Chapter 3 Terms

1. Demos: Originally used by Plato between 427-347 BCE, Demos refers to the masses of citizens inhabiting the area he spoke for. The philosopher Plato had used his knowledge to further the advancement of learning within his society at a cost; he found that certain masses of individuals in the upper elite deserved education in rhetoric and the advance teachings over lower, more common individuals. Plato believed that this valued, but often considered it an untrustworthy form of art, should be exclusive for his “philosopher kings” as those with the funds were more deserving of education. As time advanced with influence from Greek culture, privatized education towards the wealthy continued with his own lessons often incorporated in their teachings. In consideration to modern interpretation, Demos plays well into the realms of marketing and even politics; products are promoted to certain types of people in mass, while political messages are packages and used for the improvement of life for a politician’s constituents, or mass of individuals. My argument matters because Demos has been highly influential all the way from ancient societies to modern interpretation and in today’s society.
2. Dialectic: As used by Plato for the frequent discussion of philosophy between 427-347 BCE, Dialectic applies itself to the “rigorous, critical questioning” that was highly involved within the realm of justice-seeking rhetoric and practices. It is discussed how the use of Plato’s art of rhetoric is an imperative tool for philosophers to employ as the need for critical thinking grew in importance as those with funds could receive assistance from knowledgeable sophists during Plato’s era. When it was discussed how the need for rhetoricians in the courtroom in the reading on rhetoric and the law, those that could pay for advance lessons were given advanced insight into methods of engaging in this rigorous, critical thinking. By today’s application of the dialectic practices, those in the professional fields of medicine, law, mathematics, and even rhetoric use dialectic in the manner that Plato would classify through their analysis and use of critical questioning of the environments they find themselves within. My argument matters due to the continual use of critical questioning throughout time as it has advanced life in all manners of operation and quality.
3. Doxa: Used by Plato in Gorgias after modeling it from his philosophical instructor after being written in 387 BCE, Doxa pertains to the idea of public opinion. Sophists used Doxa to promote their education of those wealthy individuals who were capable of paying the sums of money to continue their education in the realm of rhetoric, furthering their ability to defend themselves in the courtroom and better articulate their ideas. Plato found trouble in the fact that these instructors were using the advancement of their opinions by imposing monetary pay-walls so that they could more effectively benefit from the needs of those in the society that possessed the ability to pay. As used back in ancient society, Doxa has been manipulated to the benefit of those looking to gain through the means of monetary, political, or social gain. The manipulation of Doxa can be observed in the modern era through misguiding marketing or even through promising certain political policy that never appears to come to fruition. My argument for Doxa matters because the use of manipulation has been ongoing throughout history and it was only continuing as time steadily advances.
4. Empeiria: Used between both Socrates, Polus, and Plato in the work Gorgias. Empeiria applies itself to the idea that rhetoric is a special skill “achieved by experience and repeated practice,” often referred to as a knack. As discussed in Gorgias, it mainly applies to the ability of some skilled sophists to better make messages more personal and better suited to connect to their students or those paying for their lessons. While these instructors may have been the ones who were being paid for this passing of knowledge, these individuals teaching really had no real knowledge was what they were teaching. While these problems were prevalent, the idea that repeated practice leads to specialized skills is still applicable and a true method of practice. This idea has been practiced from these ancient times all the way through to modern society and has helped with the adaptation of useful skills once unattainable. I know there were skills like running and studying effectively that I needed to practice adamantly to better perfect them. My argument for Empeiria is useful due to the truth that Plato was telling that continual practice in a realm of need can be highly useful for getting skills attained that were once unattainable.
5. Epoidai: Written about by Plato in his famous work Republic, Epoidai is the constant repetition of values similar in fashion to “incantations or spells.” During the time frame that Plato lived through, it isn’t surprising that the belief in spells were frequently employed to adjust a manner of aspects in one’s life. As described in the textbook, spells were frequently used as a means to induce positive medicinal effects and were frequently present in societies that practices paganism all throughout Europe from the BCE through the 15th century of the CE era. While some in the Greek, including Plato, and others Paganistic societies were high believers of Epoidai, many more like Callicles were quick to dismiss such beliefs. As it describes in the textbook further, such beliefs in incantations were highly enforced upon youthful individuals from birth so that the belief would continue on to the next generation and can also be seen to occur in today’s society. While not at the level of Harry Potter, the use of Epoidai was just as common for those in some ancient, and even fewer modern, societies. This argument is important because it greatly examines the greater effect upon the debate between philosophy and belief in spell’s beneficial effects.
6. Episteme: Written about through the use of Socrates, it was included in the discussion of how justice was to be interpreted. Episteme pertains to the “true knowledge” that was to be debated against ideas of “mere belief “or “mere opinion”. Having discussed this idea in the text Gorgias, Socrates gives greater interpretation towards the common use of sophists using their unorganized information to be presented as fact in the face of judicial determination. By not having a set standard towards how information was to be distributed to those having the ability to pay for advancement in the realm of the court, the use of Doxa – “mere opinion” could easily be used to twist the facts based on how convincing an argument they could craft. Episteme is very relevant in modern society following the frequent distribution of false information from political candidates to further their own narrative or to try to lower the credibility of other opponents. This definition for Episteme is important because it fully examines the usefulness of the ancient interpretation of the definition along with how it could be applied to today’s society.
7. Ergon: Discussed through the text Gorgias, Socrates uses the aspect of Ergon to bring about the “true goal of art.” Such a definition was vital all the way back in ancient society as the beginning of artistic expression left much to the individual interpretation. Having a command of the arts, to Socrates, meant that one could skillfully use persuasiveness to render a feeling of influence upon a viewer not just through words, otherwise it wouldn’t really be using Ergon because it wouldn’t be just through art. Having the ability to properly spread the meaning of the art created has been relevant all the way back from Socrates’ life in ancient society to modern understanding of artistic works in the modern era. Because art can greatly describe life and its many beauties and/or its countless tragedies, I think that it can be an amazing medium from which to express one’s self. My explanation of Ergon is vital because it demonstrates that art been easily misinterpreted across the span of time and is a timeless form of expression regardless of culture across the globe.
8. Hedone: In a discussion between Socrates and Callicles in Gorgias, Socrates appears to elevate life through arguments of lofty nature which frustrates Callicles. Later on, in their debate, Callicles contradicts Socrates belief that mortality is defined as following virtue by saying “mortality is following desire.” As examined in the text, this definition of mortality was contradictory towards the Athenian belief as was highly controversial as it put its definition on its head. Differing societies would be led through their following desire as often examined in Roman society while those in Nordic societies would often follow virtues instilled through their elders that were passed on from previous generations. Even throughout time, many societies have had to attempt to not be too drawn in by their desires and to follow their own set standards towards virtues, even though modern interpretation may be seen as more willing to follow one’s desires. While following desires isn’t always beneficial, it can bring show the shifting of society’s values as ideas like women’s rights were once unavailable or unpopular until people began to follow their desires for more rights. My argument is important because it shows how timeless the idea that following desires may be over virtue as it can show how a society stands towards how they treat their people.
9. Kolakeia: As written about from the perspective of Plato with the idea that the ability to use rhetoric as a skill or “knack”, he explains how sophists didn’t have true knowledge of their subjects but only theories that they would provide to those that paid for their instruction to better assist their chances of not having trouble within the courtroom setting. Having no real grasp of knowledge was not a real form of art, as Plato thought, but more an example of sophisticated “flattery aimed at pleasure without consideration of what is best.” Such a definition is highly useful and applicable all the way back with those sophists who clearly were not knowledgeable in the field but were still paid regardless of their ability to instruct those that could pay. Such practices were emulated among “snake oil salesmen” from the wild west selling their wares by persuading those gullible enough that their no useful vials would and could fix any ailment that caused an individual trouble. This definition is important because it shows how manipulation of one’s emotions has been a timeless practice across cultures from around the world due to those being gullible enough to think that simple belief without fact can lead to actual benefits in one’s life.
10. Logos: Written about in the text of Gorgias, Logos is the “persuasive power of speech” that can influence the minds and beliefs of a reader. In this instance, it is used by Plato for the reader to have a better understanding towards arguments going against the norms of Greek culture. At times Logos can be highly useful to bring about new ideas for readers, but it isn’t always the most useful tool to show how society or culture may be wrong. Persuasion only works to the extent that the reader can be influenced as sometimes they may be so deeply rooted in their beliefs that it won’t allow for them to see from a differing perspective, as was common at the time. Using Logos was common when bringing up the topic of rhetoric in ancient Greek society and could be combined to better describe how art influenced those it sought to persuade with imagery or a deeper message. Logos is frequently used in today’s society through marketing and even political speech towards policy and societal norms. My definition and interpretation is important because it examines the use from Plato’s time in ancient society along with how it can easily be applied into the modern society.
11. Parasemos: Discussed through the text Gorgias, Plato has serious doubts towards the sophists of the time who claimed to be professional and were clearly not the masters of rhetoric that they claimed to be. By claiming Parasemos, Plato was saying that the practices and beliefs of some sophists were certainly “counterfeit” in rhetoric structure and were useless to the polis. By claiming to be an advanced sophist and frequently traveling around to different towns, certain sophists were very clearly abusing the system and gave a negative connotation towards rhetoric in the ancient era. This is quite observable as sophists would often leap from town to town in order to avoid taxation and would offer lessons to those with the monetary ability to pay for lessons to advance their chances within a courtroom setting. Having counterfeit practices can clearly still be found throughout modern society as the internet can easily spread faulty information for the benefit of one person/agenda. My argument for Parasemos is important because it shows the application of ancient counterfeit rhetoric for the benefit of certain sophists and how it can be applied to the highly innovative society involve technology in the modern day.
12. Pistis: As written about within Gorgias, Plato discusses how sophists would need to use information to “produce beliefs” to better support their lessons so that individuals could do better within the courtroom in ancient society. While these sophists may have taught to bring their beliefs to fruition and allow their side of the case to win, it was often in competition with the episteme or “real knowledge”. Only through the intense and long study of the rhetorical traditions of the sophists from around the region could an individual better defend themselves and stand a better chance in the presence of a court and jury. Such an idea can clearly be examined from prosecutors ranging from true legal cases within court systems along with those prosecutors and defenders that can be found here within the walls of VMI whether on the OGA, CEA, or even the honor court. By studying cases through long deliberation and after considering a multitude of facts and factors playing into a case, they use their beliefs to help bring a case to a rightful close. My argument for the definition is valuable because it applies the definition of pistis from ancient application all the way unto modern life.
13. Polis: As defined within Herrick’s textbook, a polis is “independent city-states” as pertaining towards the Greek mindset and culture. Living within a polis enabled man to “…live the full, intelligent and responsible life which he wished to live.” While these members of early society could be intelligent and make meaningful contributions to a Greek establishment of governance and livelihood, many sophists frequented polis’ and could pull shams on those gullible enough with the funds to support these sophists supposed lessons for rhetorical improvement. These sophists would use the knack of flattery on those to imitate the art they claimed to have mastered and would require payment for. By proving that certain sophists were counterfeits in their expertise of the subject, it only led to further tarnishing of the practices of sophists actually doing good for those in need of assistance through a polis. By modern standards, there are fewer polis’ and more states or countries from which to draw origin from or feel connected to. My argument for the definition of polis is important because it shows that having organized structures towards governance and collections of people in cities and states has perpetuated throughout time into the modern era.
14. Psychagogia: Discussed by the rhetorician Gorgias in ancient Greek society. Gorgias believed that someone who was a rhetor could be considered a psychagogos, “like a poet, a leader of souls through a kind of incantation.” Psychagogia was often included in associated towards those that considered their rhetorical talents to be on the level of sophists. Not much required for a person to be considered a sophist because as long as they were able to convince others of their opinions on the world to be fact, then they could slap the title of sophist along their name. Having the ability to clearly influence and draw emotions upon an audience would allow for those with skills in rhetoric to better connect with their audience and potentially be paid for teaching those with the funds in their own defense in the eyes of the law when they otherwise wouldn’t be allowed to have defense. Motivational speakers found on the internet can often be associated with similar skills of psychagogos due to their great ability to appeal and bring a reaction out of one’s soul. My argument for the definition for psychagogia is valid due to the correlation between appealing to one’s soul through rhetoric similar to a spell as it is even applicable to motivational speakers from the 20th and 21st centuries.
15. Rhetores: In Plato’s arguments against sophists, he takes particular focus upon those looking to benefit off of persuading audiences through rhetorical practices, especially politicians. Plato thus defines Rhetores as “those who wield persuasive words”, clearly looking at those who discern themselves under the term sophist. While Plato used the term Rhetores to very broadly lump all politicians and rhetors together, it clearly can be applied to more than just politicians. While sophists and politicians are clear targets for the definition, ordinary people throughout cultures from around the world can also be included in the category of rhetores. In modern day, rhetores could be applied to politicians still, but now with the internet and entertainment, modern marketing companies and spokespeople could be clear examples of rhetores and their ability to show how an idea or item is vital to one’s life even if it isn’t. In my argument, it demonstrates the importance of how much power the individuals with persuasive speech wield upon society.
16. Techne: In the text Gorgias, Plato bases the character of Gorgias on a different sophist who believed that rhetoric was a “true form of art” or called a techne. As examined clearly throughout the fellow definitions, art can absolutely be interpreted and applied in countless different manners. Techne can be imitated to reproduce a message from a different perspective, in different mediums, and can even be counterfeited. While the use of rhetoric can absolutely be considered an art, using rhetoric in an outward fashion can result in dangerous outcomes due to rhetoric causing difference reactions from a range of people and it can promote clear ignorance of the state of the world. Regardless of society, culture, location, or place in time, techne is clearly still present in the modern era and can be applied through mediums of painting, music, video production, sculpture, and countless others. My argument for the definition of techne is important because it traces its history and impacts upon the lives of everyday people regardless of location previous history as it will continue to impact the lives of people around the globe.
17. Tribe: As found in the textbook by Herrick, tribe is closely associated with the Empeiria definition of “experience and continued practice.” Tribe is attributed to the specialized skill, or knack as the textbook puts it, to use perseverance in continual practice to noticeably improve one’s skills in the realm of rhetoric and its influence upon an audience. While Plato equates tribe to being a skilled cook, tribe can be clearly associated to any number of skills useful or not. Even though an individual may have been skilled in a certain area, it doesn’t always mean that they are actual practitioners or masters towards their skills. Even though people have continued to be experienced in their practice to better perfect their skills, there are certainly still people that fabricate their skills and say they are masters in their craft. My argument is important as it shows that the time doesn’t limit human’s ability to strive to perfect skills, and also fabricate information saying that they have the necessary skills to be considered teachers.