Jealousy is a central theme in Othello. Through the character of Othello, Shakespeare reflects early modern English views about the mental state and behavior of a jealous man, as well as views that husband with a wife of high social status was more susceptible to jealousy. However, he calls into question the view that Othello’s Moorish race and social outsiderness made him unworthy to become a member of Desdemona’s social class.
Early modern English writers differed in their perspectives of the nature of jealousy. Francis Bacon believed that jealousy was the result of one person loving another person to too great an extent. For Bacon, this was not a virtuous kind of love, but a twisted love characterized by extreme sexual passion (Hall 328). Benedetto Varchi and Robert Burton both view jealousy as an intense emotion, related to love, but not really the result of love (Hall 328). Furthermore, Varchi believes that some kinds and groups of people, such as women, Venetians, and Africans, are by nature more prone to feeling jealous (Hall 328).
Benedetto Varchi notes that people who perceive themselves as generally inferior to other men and women are often jealous. They are especially bitter that they are not esteemed or thought attractive by the women in their lives, and become jealous of the men and women who enjoy each other’s respect and approval (Varchi 333). Nevertheless, Varchi concludes that jealousy is in fact a natural emotion that is actually virtuous in the appropriate context and in the appropriate quantity. Feeling jealousy for one’s own reputation or the reputation of one’s wife are examples of circumstances where jealously is appropriate (Varchi 333-34).
Robert Burton describes the mind of a jealous man. The jealous man is in a frenzied state. He can never rest, but continuously views the actions of his mistress with suspicion, asking himself what may be the secret motives behind each of her seemingly insignificant words or actions (Burton 335-37). Furthermore, his suspicions of her manifest themselves in his own actions. He may one moment adore his mistress and speak lovingly and intimately to her, and then, after he has misinterpreted and blown out of proportion some small thing she has said or done, insult her, act violently toward her, and cast her out of his presence. His suspicions also extend even beyond his mistress alone, and may include anyone among his own friends and family whom he suspects of becoming romantically involved with his mistress (Burton 336-37). After discussing several options for curing this frenzied state that is jealousy, Burton concludes that a mistress’s only option is to exercise patience with her man until his jealousy subsides (Burton 337).
Francis Bacon points out that in order for a man to envy someone else, he must have someone to whom to compare himself. A man compares himself to others who are of similar status as himself, but whom he perceives as being slightly better than himself. For example, kings are not jealous of any one of their subjects, but instead kings are jealous of other kings. Therefore, a man who focuses mainly on his own affairs and is not continually looking at the achievements of others is less prone to jealousy (Bacon 339). Bacon also notes that, unlike other feelings, which arise from time to time when they are evoked by some situation, the feeling of jealousy exists constantly in man. Bacon ultimately condemns jealousy as the most heinous emotion, and the one that best characterizes the Devil himself (Bacon 340).
Lastly, Thomas Wright, while he does not discuss jealousy in particular, describes how passionate feelings in general affect a man’s mind and consequent actions. He explains how passions, instead of reason, can take control of a man’s will and drive him to commit rash deeds. He also emphasizes the violent, chaotic nature of a mind dominated by passions. As he writes, “We may compare the soul without passions to a calm sea with sweet, pleasant, and crispling streams, but the passionate to the raging gulf swelling with waves, surging by tempests, menacing the stony rocks, and endeavoring to overthrow mountains” (Wright). He observes also that “inordinate passions either prevent reason or are stirred up by a corrupt judgment, and therefore neither observe time nor place, but upon every occasion would be leaping into action, importuning execution” (Wright). Ultimately, Wright concludes that the passions cause continuous disquietude in the mind of man. The soul of such a man is never at rest (Wright).
Othello’s unstable mental state is apparent throughout the play once he begins to buy in to Iago’s lies, especially through his interactions and conversation with Desdemona in the final scene. Othello’s actions with Desdemona at the beginning of the scene particularly reflect Robert Burton’s description of the frenzied mind of a man who is at one moment adoring of his mistress, and at the next moment filled with contempt for her. Even as Othello is preparing to strangle his wife to death, he cannot resist still loving her, as shown by his kisses. The fact that he is still kissing her at line 19 and then has strangled her by line 87 is telling of his mental state. This contradictory behavior is also in accordance with Wright’s description of the passions, particularly when Wright says that “the east wind riseth often against the west, the south against the north, the wind against the tide, and one passion fighteth with another” (Wright). Othello’s passions of love for Desdemona and his jealousy over her alleged infidelity do indeed clash violently against each other. Othello himself exclaims in Act III, Scene 3, “Like to the Pontic Sea, /Whose icy current and compulsive course /Ne’er feels retiring ebb…/Even so my bloody thoughts with violence pace /Shall…ne’er ebb to humble love, /Till that capable and wide revenge /Swallow them up” (III. iii. 470-76). By the end of the final scene, Othello has himself acknowledged that his own excess of love for Desdemona spurred on the feelings of jealousy that Iago kindled. He laments, “Then you must speak /Of one that loved not wisely but too well; /Of one not easily jealous but, being wrought, /Perplexed in the extreme” (V. ii. 353-56). These lines reflect the views of Bacon that jealousy is the result of loving another person to too great an extent. Othello seems to believe that he loved Desdemona so much that when it was merely suggested that she was being unfaithful to him, he lost his mind and thereby doomed her. He explains this further by claiming that he is not by nature prone to jealousy, but that someone else, that is, Iago, used his own intense love for Desdemona against him (V. ii. 355).
It has thus been established that the jealous thoughts and behavior exhibited by Othello were reflective of the common views of jealousy in early modern period in England. Many of today’s readers would share the view of these writers that jealousy is a sort of frenzied passion. However, we will now examine how some early modern English views of jealousy that would likely not be shared by today’s audience played a role in the development of Othello’s jealousy. The kind of jealous thoughts that Othello intimates to the reader reflect an early modern English conception of jealousy that does not align with modern American and European views of jealousy. Today, most people more or less equate jealousy with envy. According to this conception, jealousy is most certainly a vice: It is a selfish desire to have what someone else has. It should be noted that this definition of jealousy does indeed appear in Othello. However, this kind of jealousy manifests itself in the character of Iago, not Othello himself. Just before he hatches his plot to kill Cassio in Act V, Scene 1, Iago chillingly states his feelings towards Cassio: “He hath a daily beauty in his life /That makes me ugly” (V. i. 19-20). Iago clearly represents a kind of jealousy that resents others’ possession of good things. This kind of jealousy, however, contrasts with the kind of jealousy which Othello displays, and which was the more common conception of jealousy in early modern England. Olson explains that “in the early modern period, to be jealous of something was to guard or watch it carefully; we retain this sense of the word today in the phrases ‘jealous God’ or ‘jealous of one’s time’” (Olson 8). While Iago demonstrated envy, which early modern English thought identified as one of the “seven deadly sins,” Othello demonstrates a kind of jealousy that is best described by the word “guardianship” (Olson 8). Olson clarifies the early modern English definitions of envy and jealousy: “to be envious of something was to want something you did not have, and to be jealous was to fear losing something that you did” (Olson 8). Thus, while Iago resents the “daily beauty” that Cassio possesses, Othello, at Iago’s urging, comes to fear that he is losing Desdemona.
The concept of Othello acting as some sort of jealous guardian of Desdemona can be better understood with an investigation into the early modern English view about the relationship between men and the women that were a part of their households. In early modern England, a man’s wife or daughter were seen as his property, insofar as they were under his authority and protection. Olson explains that “the discourses of early modern jealousy depended on the institution of private property, and often aligned women with objects, property, or commodities exchanged between men” (Olson 9). For this reason, Olson describes as “hazy” the distinction between a man’s fear of being deprived of his material possessions and his fear being deprived of his wife in the form of her infidelity (Olson 9). Othello’s jealousy, then, stems from his perception that he is losing sole possession of Desdemona. Olson notes that early modern English thinkers generally defined sexual jealousy as the “desire for exclusive possession” (Olson 9). Othello cannot bear the thought that Desdemona is allowing herself to be shared with, or even altogether stolen by, another man. Understandably, he wants her all for himself.
The feelings of jealousy that Iago causes to arise in Othello were actually appropriate and justified according to most early modern English writers. Jealousy in early modern England was not really perceived as a vice. A man was justified in zealously guarding that which was rightfully his, and in flaring with jealousy when others threatened to seize his possessions. Olson notes that “it was expected that a man would be jealous of his property, which would have included his wife or daughter” (Olson 8). Shakespeare’s portrayal of Othello makes clear that the jealousy Othello felt was not a wicked emotion. This portrayal of Othello is shown when Lodovico wonders aloud what he can even say to Othello, to which Othello replies, “Why, anything. /An honorable murderer, if you will, /For naught did I in hate, but all in honor” (V. ii. 301-03). Thus, Shakespeare affirms Varchi’s proposition that jealousy, in the appropriate context, is natural and justified. It was right for Othello to be jealous when he believed that Desdemona had been unfaithful. Thus, Iago never really did corrupt Othello’s character; he merely convinced Othello of his lies about Desdemona and Cassio. Othello’s only fault was to believe Iago. At the end of the play, the audience is deeply disgusted and angered by way Iago manipulated Othello. On the other hand, the audience is actually sympathetic toward Othello, whose jealousy, which would have been justified had Iago’s rumors been true, ultimately destroys him and the lives of those he loves.
We will now consider the significance of the relationship between Othello and Desdemona in terms of their respective social classes, and what role this played in the development of Othello’s jealousy. Desdemona was the daughter of Brabantio, a senator, and thus was part of the social upper-class of Venice. As stated earlier, in early modern England women were often seen as the property of the male head of the household. The significant thing here is that, in the early modern English view, a woman of high class was seen, in the words of Olson, as “socially valuable” (Olson 18). Of course, the more valuable a possession, the more zealously one guards it in order to maintain exclusion possession of it. Consequently, one also becomes more jealous when one’s exclusive possession of that thing is threatened. Therefore, Olson notes that in the view of an early modern English audience “Desdemona’s social location…would have been understood to be a potential catalyst for the kind of intense jealousy her husband develops. To marry someone like Desdemona…was to put oneself at risk of developing jealousy” (Olson 3). It is evident that Shakespeare had these views in mind because the words that Iago uses to arouse feelings of jealousy in Othello paint Desdemona as a highly valuable possession whom Othello cannot afford to let someone else steal. Iago hints to Othello that, in the words of Olson, “he has not watched her with the vigilance required; he has watched her with loving pleasure when he should have been watching her with fear of loss” (Olson 19). Shakespeare thus reflects the early modern English view that having a wife of high social status made a man more prone to jealousy, making this view a key element of Iago’s successful strategy to arouse feelings of jealousy in Othello.
The fact that Othello was a Moore exacerbated Othello’s feelings of insecurity (and therefore his feelings of jealousy) when he began to believe that Desdemona was betraying him by cutting off his only link to the Christian, Venetian upper class. There was a popular belief in early modern England that Moors, or, in fact, all those who originated from the hot temperatures of Africa, were more susceptible to passions of various kinds, including jealousy (Olson 6). However, this view of Moors is not relevant here. Rather, Othello becomes jealous because Desdemona is so valuable to him; without her, he really has no personal connection to the society and culture of which his marriage to Desdemona has made him a part. English professor Carol Neely refers to this as Desdemona’s “cultural insiderness” (Neely quoted in Olson 6). Shakespeare draws on the common sentiment among the English people of his day that Moors, and, indeed, all those of Othello’s complexion, were some sort of “other” who did not really belong in upper-class Christian society. According to Olson, Othello’s upper-class social status was “largely conferred on him by his wife” (Olson 17). Under the influence of Iago’s lies, then, Othello is plagued by thoughts that he is not worthy to maintain his possession of Desdemona because he feels that she, as a white, Venetian Christian, is a member of a culture and a social class that he can never truly be a part of on his own because of his racial and social background.
At first, Othello shows no evidence of doubting his worthiness to enter into the same social class as Desdemona. His initial self-confidence is rooted in the fact that he knows his cultural outsiderness played a large role in Desdemona’s love for him. His stories of his exotic past were what attracted her to him in the first place (I. iii. 130-72). Othello interpreted this reaction from Desdemona as reason to believe that he might actually be accepted by others in her social class. Because of this, he is confident in his ability to defend his worth as Desdemona’s husband to her father Brabantio, as demonstrated by his words about Brabantio in the opening of Act I, Scene 2: “Let him do his spite. /My services which I have done the seigniory /Shall out-tongue his complaints” (I. ii. 17-19) (Olson 11). Furthermore, he proves that he does not hesitate to take control of a situation. When Brabantio and Iago draw their swords to harm each other, Othello states in a calm yet commanding voice, “Keep up your bright swords, for the dew will rust them” (I. ii. 60). Othello thus shows that he has no reservations about his ability to lead as the dominant figure in a social setting that is defined as white, Christian, and Venetian.
Over time, however, as Iago’s lies take root in his heart and mind, Othello begins to believe that there is nothing he can do to make himself deserve his place by Desdemona’s side. As Olson notes, “One of the first things Iago does in his attempt to accelerate Othello’s jealousy…is to remind him that his wife married outside her ‘clime, complexion, and degree’ (III. iii. 247)” (Olson 12). Clearly, insecurities rear their ugly heads when Othello begins to doubt his place in the culture and social class into which his marriage to Desdemona has brought him. This is evident from his soliloquy in Act III, Scene 3, when he says, “I am black /And have not those soft parts of conversation that chamberers have” (III. iii. 280-82). He loses his confidence that he is equal to those of the higher classes. The fact that Othello is a Moor, the only one of his kind in that culture and social class, thus increases his chances of developing feelings of jealousy, because Desdemona, as his link, is of significantly more value to him than if he were a white Venetian Christian himself. This extra measure of jealousy that arises from the issue of Othello’s race adds another dimension to this argument that Othello became jealous due in part to Desdemona’s social status. In this way, Shakespeare further reflects the early modern English view that the more valuable a man’s wife was to him, that is, the higher her social class, the greater the risk that he would develop feelings of jealousy when he began to perceive that he was losing exclusive possession of her.
Yet, even as Shakespeare incorporates into this play the early modern English view that Moors and other such races did not really belong in upper-class, Christian society, he seems to be at the same time subtly critiquing this view. Othello only begins to have misgivings about his ability to maintain exclusive possession of Desdemona (and, consequently, about his worth as a member of her social class) when Iago begins lying to him. Othello becomes a victim of Iago’s own envy and resentment. Shakespeare leaves open the question of whether Othello truly deserved to be included into Desdemona’s social class. Shakespeare seems to be hinting to his audience that perhaps Othello was a good man with many admirable traits, such as courage on the battlefield, strong leadership abilities, and a true, pure love for his wife. Perhaps he did deserve his place by Desdemona’s side, regardless of the color of his skin. In this way, Shakespeare portrays Othello’s jealousy arising in the way that his early modern English audience would have expected: Othello became jealous because he tried to join a social class that it was impossible for him to join due to his race. However, Shakespeare subtly challenges these common beliefs by suggesting that Iago merely deceived Othello into doubting his own worth as a husband of Desdemona, and thereby driving him into a frenzy of jealousy.
In many ways, Shakespeare reflects the early modern English views of jealousy. Othello, thrown into a chaotic whirlwind of passions, exhibits frenzied and contradictory thoughts and behaviors. The lies of Iago bring out his insecurities that he does not really belong in the social class into which his marriage to Desdemona has brought him. These insecurities are compounded by the contemporary views of his Moorish race. His fear of losing Desdemona nearly drives him mad, because she is his only link to white, Christian, Venetian society. By the end of the play, however, Shakespeare leaves his audience disturbed by Othello’s fate, and questioning their own preconceived views of cultural outsiders such as Othello the Moor.
Works Cited
Bacon, Francis. The Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral. Othello. By William Shakespeare. Ed. Kim F. Hall. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007. 338-40. Print.
Burton, Robert. Anatomy of Melancholy. Othello. By William Shakespeare. Ed. Kim F. Hall. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007. 335-37. Print.
Hall, Kim F., ed. Othello. By William Shakespeare. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007. Print.
Olson, Rebecca. “‘Too Gentle’: Jealousy and Class in Othello.” Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, 2015, pp. 3-25. Project MUSE, doi: 10.1353/jem.2015.0006. Accessed 16 Apr. 2017.
Shakespeare, William. Othello. Ed. Kim F. Hall. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007. Print.
Varchi, Benedetto. The Blazon of Jealousy. Othello. By William Shakespeare. Ed. Kim F. Hall. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007. 330-34. Print.
Wright, Thomas. “The Passions of the Mind.” Internet Shakespeare Editions, edited by Jessica Slights, modern ed., University of Victoria, Apr. 16, 2017, internetshakespeare.uvi c.ca/do c/WrightPassions_M/complete//#about. Accessed 17 Apr. 2017.
