John Kudrysch                                                                                                History of Chemistry

Help Received: Jaffe Book

Starting off as primarily a minister, Priestley had proven himself to be more than a man of God by the time of his death. He was a revolutionary in the establishment of many current uses and realizations of important compounds and elements. His fame was well known all around Europe, England in particular, because of his incredible contributions. Eventually he became tired of being chased around and hassled in England, and decided to move to the New World. Upon landing in New York he found out his fame was well known even to the New World. He arrived like a champion returning from battle, a hero (1). The first of his contributions to modern chemistry is the mixture of carbon dioxide and water in order to create carbonated beverages (1). Merely a minister at the time he managed to introduce a revolutionary concept for the food industry that will probably be used until the end of history. His discovery of ammonium chloride, now used in dry batteries, was also contributed to Priestley’s efforts and experimentation (1). The list goes on, but without a doubt the most important discovery of Priestley was how important oxygen is to living and breathing organisms. Through experimentation with mice and enclosed space he found out that oxygen is the vital element in the air that keeps creatures alive, not the entirety of air itself (1). This discovery shook the world as this man introduced a luxury that was not around before his time. Isolated oxygen was now proven to be the source of life, and in today’s world the utilization of oxygen is constant. People that have trouble breathing, like pneumonia patients or firefighters, rely on oxygen to live at times if their lungs cannot get enough air to flow through it (1). This vital element, being introduced to the world for the first time as a “life bringer,” has been spot-lighted solely because of Priestley. Until the end of time his work and efforts for modern chemistry will always be cherished.

• Jaffe. Crucibles: The Story of Chemistry, Dover Publications Inc, New York, USA, (1976) pp. 37-54.

Assignment 2

Paper 3 Caffeine

John D. Kudrysch                                            History of Chemistry                                       Help Received: None

Molecule: Caffeine

Ranked as the most consumed compound around the world, aside from water, caffeine has been introduced into almost every society in one form or another (1). Caffeine is found in daily life in the mixtures of coffee, tea, soft drinks, and candies. The analysis of caffeine has allowed science to take the molecule and put it into other forms aside from beverages. It has gotten to the point where caffeine can also be introduced into the body by patches, gum, and even tablets.  Outside of commercial use caffeine is also known to be cut into recreational drugs in order to fool the illegal consumer into believing the stimulation effects are not as potent for cocaine ingesting. Analytical laboratories have standards and methods for analyzing caffeine. The impact this drug has on the world stems well outside of the daily consumption with a cup of coffee.

History of ingesting caffeine goes well beyond the AD era where the first instance of using it was through the making of tea in ancient China (2). Coffee was not introduced into the world until the middle of the fifteenth century. This consumption paved the way in the middle east to spread the use of caffeine, mainly in coffee, to the European nations. Italy was the first to adopt the consumption of caffeine in the European continent (2). While caffeine has historical significance in terms of usage, the compound itself was not isolated and analyzed until the nineteenth century. This isolation was done by a man named Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge. This isolation was then done by French chemists after him. Two of these chemists contributed to describing and analyzing caffeine, unlike Runge. Chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet was the man to describe caffeine’s properties in its isolated state, and chemist Pierre Joseph Pelletier performed the first elemental analysis on caffeine. Pelletier was a chemist who worked extensively with scientist Coventou, where both of them studied alkaloids that are found in vegetables (3).

Caffeine is an alkaloid, where nitrogen atoms are present in its molecular structure:

(2)

It is the main ingredient of coffee which is produced by beans, certain leaves, and nuts (4). This availability has enabled caffeine to be consumed all around the world. This chemically reacts in the body as a stimulate for the central nervous system. This stimulation has been observed by scientists as harmless except under very specific and extreme conditions (4). To obtain pure caffeine from coffee or liquidated beverages containing caffeine, the process to decaffeinate is the main method for isolating caffeine from everything else. This extraction use to be done through the use of specific solvents such as benzene and chloroform, but because of health, costs, and flavor new methods were developed to separate caffeine away from what it is found in (2, 4). The process of water extraction, where the water filters through the coffee and the caffeine is caught by activated charcoal, allows for clear isolation of caffeine. This isolation has allowed many other purposes of caffeine to be developed such as pills and more concentrated drinks containing caffeine (2).

Using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction works well because of its nonpolar solubility for caffeine, and using organic solvents to extract the caffeine, such as ethyl acetate, has made it easier for people to isolate caffeine (2). The utilization of High Pressure Liquid Chromatography, HPLC, has been used in industry in order to determine the presence and concentration of caffeine (4). Caffeine itself can be detected purely by GC-MS if the sample of caffeine is pure and not mixed in with other substances. Using UV wavelength spectroscopy the determination of caffeine’s presence in a mixture can be found. A spectrophotometer can determine the concentration of the caffeine in a mixture based on the absorbency. The higher the concentration the higher the absorbance value (4).

Caffeine is plentiful throughout the world, and is very easy to come by. Laboratory grade caffeine, that is used in reactions, studies, and determinations in forensic labs, is cheap to come by as well. On Sigma-Aldrich, laboratory grade caffeine can be bought for approximately $34.10 for only 100 grams of compound (5).  Caffeine has a white color to it, and is found as a crystalline solid (6). The reason that caffeine would be used in laboratory settings is to use it as a standard to analyze against a mixture of compounds such as a bar of cocaine. Contrary to belief, cocaine is not usually found completely pure on the streets and is usually cut with something like caffeine. Caffeine pills are also found on the streets, and can be confused by officers at times as illegal substances.  It has a fairly high melting point at 238°C, and it’s boiling point has no recording of temperature (6). It is odorless, tastes slightly bitter, and has a molecular weight of 194.2 g/mole. This compound is does not have a very high toxicity for organisms, having an LD50 of 192mg/kg (6). It is a very mild skin irritant depending on the exposure, but it is to be considered acutely hazardous if contacted with the eyes (6). If ingested it will not cause immediate concern so long as the ingestion isn’t absurd. It may cause damage to someone’s heart, gastrointestinal track, and the central nervous system (6).

Chronic use of caffeine may result in organ damage and mild addiction (6, 2). Usually the best way to handle caffeine is to store it in a container that is tightly sealed, and the container is kept in a well vented area (6). When handling it is suggested that gloves are used at all times, glasses are worn, and it is not left out at any point in time unless being used in case of contamination and prolonged exposure to the skin. The ability to metabolize the compound determines the effects of the drugs. Caffeine can be used to disrupt and kill spiders, insects, and certain kinds of mammals and birds. The lack of high enough metabolism enables toxic effects on the body (2).

Caffeine is, without a doubt, society’s favorite drug. Cultures all around the world have adopted caffeine entirely, and its use has changed society. In return, as scientific progression isolated caffeine, multiple and more dynamic uses for caffeine were discovered along the way. The use of caffeine beverages such as coffee was regulated by ancient governments differently. Some societies, such as the Ottoman Empire, banned certain societal classes from drinking the beverage as if it was a delicacy (2). Other societies tried to ban it entirely because they found it to be stimulating and could not regulate the effects of caffeine for its citizens. Prussia, England, and Sweden all banned caffeine, specifically coffee, several times throughout their history (2). The United States had its own scare with caffeinated beverages in the early 1900’s, where kola was a concern to some people given its “addiction capabilities” (2). The regulation of caffeine in the United States is really relaxed, coffee and other beverages having only mild warning labels given that caffeine itself is not generally toxic.

The most popular drug in the world, caffeine has made its mark on societies around the world. A naturally occurring alkaloid in nature, caffeine is also known to be easily isolated through industrial decaffeination methods. These methods have become more environmentally and consumer friendly over the years. Depending on the exact exposure, caffeine can be an irritant. The substance isolated looks like a white powder, where this laboratory use is extensively for forensic labs and other analytical methods that are not practical in a household. It’s lasting effects on society will continue to influence beverages, pills, and other applications in order to stimulate a person safely. The over consumption of caffeine can prove to be harmful to the body, but if taken in moderation or a certain limit per day then caffeine is relatively harmless.

(1). http://www.clivewilliams.hubpages.com/hub/most-consumed-beverages, accessed 6 March, 2015

(2). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/caffeine, accessed 6 March, 2015.

(3). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_joseph_pelletier, accessed 7 March, 2015

(4). http://www.jenway.com/adminimages/A09_010A_Determination_of_Caffeine_in_Beverages_using_UV_

Wavelength_Spectroscopy(1).pdf, accessed 8 March, 2015.

(5). http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sial/c0750?lang=en&region=US, accessed 9 March, 2015

(6). http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927475, accessed 9 March, 2015.

John D. Kudrysch                                            History of Chemistry                                       Help Received: None

Salt: Potassium Dichromate K₂Cr₂O₇

 Paper 2 K2Cr2O7

In 1844 potassium dichromate was finally recognized as a poisonous substance by Dr. J.J. Drysdale (1). Chromium was an element discovered in the late 18^th century, but the salt potassium dichromide had not become noticed and analyzed until the mid 19^th century. It was initially used as a dye for leathers, paints, and it was also used in batteries (1). This salt was used widely in all aspects of life, so its toxicity was not noticed until it was too late in a lot of cases. Potassium dichromate has been closely monitored and taken out of the general public’s reach in casual aspects once it was discovered to be harmful to health. Today it is still used widely in laboratories for organic and analytical analysis and its production is still used for other aspects of common life, just not as readily available for accidental consumption like it was during the 18^th and 19^th centuries.

Sodium dichromate and potassium chloride as the reagents usually utilized in the synthesis of potassium dichromate. This salt is also soluble in water, and during the dissolving process it ionizes (2).

K₂Cr₂O₇ → 2 K⁺ + Cr₂O₇²⁻

Cr₂O₇²⁻ + H₂O ⇌ 2 CrO₄²⁻ + 2 H⁺

Potassium dichromate is an oxidizing agent for alcohols in organic chemistry. This salt is a strong oxidizing agent, and can be used to either fully oxidize an alcohol or partially oxidize an alcohol. Potassium dichromate can partially oxidize ethanol to the simpler ethanal aldehyde. A simplified version of the reaction between potassium dichromate and ethanol is below (3):

3CH₃CH₂OH + Cr₂O₇^2- + 8H⁺ →   3CH₃CHO + 2Cr³⁺ + 7H₂O

This salt can also be used to fully oxidize alcohols to carboxylic acids. The full equation for potassium dichromate to fully oxidize ethanol to ethanoic acid is below (3):

3CH₃CH₂OH + 2Cr₂O₇^2- + 16H⁺  →   3CH₃COOH + 4Cr³⁺ + 11H₂O

As an oxidizing agent it is still milder than potassium permanganate that is also widely used in organic reactions with alcohols.  Because of this more mild aspect potassium dichromate can partially oxidize alcohols into aldehydes whereas more potent oxidizers like potassium permanganate usually produce the product of carboxylic acids (2).

Potassium dichromate has a very bright, red-orange color to it. The reason that this salt is widely used in laboratory settings is because it is not deliquescent, or moisture absorbing from the air, like a lot of the other salts used in industry or lab settings are (2). It has a fairly high melting point at 398 °C, and it’s boiling point is at 500 °C where at that stage it just decomposes (4). It is odorless and has a molecular weight of 294.2 g/mole. This salt is very harmful to the health of organisms, having an LD50 of 25mg/kg (4). It is a very harsh skin irritant and is to be considered extremely hazardous in terms of being corrosive (4). If ingested, even at a non-lethal dose, it can cause serious damage to someone’s blood, kidneys, lungs, liver, respiratory tract, skin, and eyes (4). Usually the best way to handle potassium dichromate it to store it in a glass container that is tightly sealed, and when handling make sure gloves are used at all times, glasses are worn, and it is not left out at any point in time unless being used. It is safe to say that this salt should be considered dangerous to the general public, and the fact that it was used in paints and other pigment modifiers is a troublesome concept for those that were effected before its identification.

This salt ranges at a fair price of about $85.00 per 100g (5). To buy it and have a massive amount is not hard to accomplish, so the compound is found in abundance for lab purposes. Due to its capacity of being very vibrant in color it is known to have a visible aspect to it. UV/Vis-spectrophotometry is one of the most common instrumental techniques utilized for analyzing compounds and elements because many compounds produce their own color wavelength. This salt can dissolve in water, so at certain concentrations and at the appropriate UV wavelength the spectrophotometer could detect the salt’s presence even in a mixture of other colors. This method has probably helped people determine the presence of the salt in paints and other household items that wouldn’t seem fit to keep around the general population.

As stated previously potassium dichromate was initially used for dyes and coloring for the rich reds and oranges that the compound creates. Over the years the use of this compound has changed because of society. Once it was realized that this salt is toxic to organics the usage of potassium dichromate became very limited and monitored. The salt is still used widely in several aspects of day-to-day living other than laboratory oxidation reactions with organic molecules. In cleaning this salt has been used to prepare a cleaning acid, chromic acid, for glassware and etching materials (2). This practice has become more and more rare though because of the toxic usage of hexavalent chromium. In construction potassium dichromate has been used as an ingredient in cement because the salt retards the setting of the mixture and improves its density (2). Because of the health hazard of contracting dermatitis, construction workers usually contract this if they are exposed to it often. Photography also utilized potassium dichromate. The chromium portion of the salt has the property of tanning animal proteins when a strong light source is exposed to them. This translates over to photographic screen printing for images (2). Potassium dichromate is also used in wood treatment, where it is used to stain types of wood by darkening the tannis. Mahogany is effected greatly by this and the brown colors that come from using potassium dichromate cannot be achieved with modern dyes (2).

Aside from organic reactions and day-to-day usage potassium dichromate can also be used in analytical reactions as a reagent. In ethanol determination the concentration of the ethanol can be determined by back titrating with acidified potassium dichromate (2). The dichromate excess is determined by the sodium thiosulfate in the solution. The amount of excess dichromate from the initial amount gives the amount of ethanol present in the solution (2). This reaction was utilized in old police breathalyzers. The alcohol vapors from the mouth would react with the dichromate crystals, turning the orange crystals into green ones. Depending on the concentration in the breath, thus the concentration in the body, determined the amount of green present instead of orange (2).

Another analytical method that this salt is used for is testing for silver. When potassium dichromate is dissolved in a 35% solution of nitric acid it is called Schwerter’s solution (2). This solution is used to detect numerous metals, silver being one of the main benefactors that this solution is utilized for. Depending on the purity of the silver that is being analyzed determines the color of the solution. A pure silver metal will turn the solution really bright red, and as the purity decreases so does the luster of the red. It changes down to a darker red, and eventual brown. The solution will even turn green for 0.500 silver (2).

History has yet again utilized a compound for its usage in non-ideal locations for such a toxic substance. This is similar to the lead paint that had been used for decades until it was found to be dangerous and toxic to the human body as well. The fact that it was detected not until the middle of the 19^th century suggests that potassium dichromate is the possible reasoning behind many deaths before it was finally monitored closely. Used in laboratories today as a potent oxidizer, and partial oxidizer, it is utilized in both organic and analytical methods.

(1). http://www.avogel.com/plant-encyclopaedia/kalium_bichromicum.php, accessed 16 Feb, 2015

(2). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_dichromate, accessed 14 Feb, 2015.

(3). http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/alcohols/oxidation.html, accessed 14 Feb, 2015

(4). http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927404, accessed 16 Feb, 2015.

(5). http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sial/207802?lang=en&region=US, accessed 15 Feb, 2015.

John Kudrysch                                                                                                History of Chemistry

Help Received: Leicester Book

1804 – Nicolas Theodore de Saussure (1767-1845) – discovered the carbon in dry matter of plants comes from carbon dioxide entirely, as well as proved that the rest of the dry matter came from water with the exception of minerals in the soil.

1816 – Francois Magendie (1783-1855) – Fed dogs distilled water and one specific food (experiment) – proved that nitrogenous foods were needed for life. Side discovery of xerophthalmia due to lack of vitamin A intake.

1817 – J. Pelletier (1788-1842) and J.B. Caventou (1795-1877) – Isolated chlorophyll

1824 – William Prout (1785-1850) – Acid of gastric juice was proven to be muriatic acid, not widely accepted by science world at first

1827 – William Prout (1785-1850) – Identified three categories of “foodstuffs” that had to be included in diet (1) – Saccharine, oily, and albuminous. The nature of fats essentially were the study behind this identification.

1835 – Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) – found that gastric juices contained pepsin, a catalyst effective in helping the breaking down of food

1842 – Liebig (1803-1873) – Published Die Thierchemie, where theories were applied to animal and human physiology proving chemistry can be applied to physiological problems.

1845 – Louis Mialhe (1807-1886) – Discovered ptyalin in saliva as an enzyme designed to help breakdown food

1845 – J.R. Mayer (1814-1878) – Pointed out the significance of the stored sunlight plants take in during photosynthesis for the human experience

1846 – Claude Bernard (1813-1878) – Studied pancreatic juice, and found it can break down starch, fats, and proteins

184? – J.B. Lawes (1843-1910) and J.H. Gilbert (1817-1901) – nitrogen compounds are important to fertilizers in order to grow substances

1849 – A. A. Berthold (1803-1861) – transplanted testicular tissues in fowls to show the effects of caponization could be prevented

1852 – Friedrich Bidder (1810-1894) and Carl Schmidt (1822-1894) – detailed analysis of Prout’s theories back in 1824 proved the gastric acid was in fact hydrochloric acid

1857 – Claude Bernard (1813-1878) – isolated glycogen from the liver

1865 – Carl Voit (1831-1908) – disproved that proteins, carbohydrates, and fats were not oxidized by oxygen immediately to produce energy in the body, but rather a large range of intermediate substances were formed from the original food before being fused with the oxygen (1).

1876 – Willy Kuhne (1837-1900) – isolated trypsin

1881 – Nikolai Ivanovich Lunin (1854-1937) – showed a small amount of milk added to purified diets were adequate enough to keep animals alive

1882 – Kanchiro Takaki (1849-1915) – added fresh meat to the diet of Japanese navy sailors in order to prevent beriberi

1883-1884 Max Rubner (1854-1932) – announced the isodynamic law, which claimed carbs, fats, and proteins were equivalent in caloric (energy burning) value

1890 – Emil Fischer (1852-1919) – Studied structures of purines and polypeptides and opened an understanding of the nitrogen metabolism

1897 – Eduard Buchner (1860-1917) – obtained an extraction of yeast that demonstrated to have fermenting power

1889 – C. E. Brown-Sequard (1817-1894) – injected himself with testicular extracts

1895 – George Oliver (1841-1915) and Edward Sharpey Shafer (1850-1935) – extracts from adrenal gland used in raising blood pressure

1901 – Jokichi Takamine (1854-1922) – isolated adrenaline and epinephrine from the adrenal gland

1901 – Gerrit Grijns (1865-1944) – established beriberi as a deficiency disease

1902 – William Bayliss (1860-1924) and Ernest Starline (1866-1927) – Discovered secretin

1907 – Axel Holst (1861-1931) and Theodore Frolich (1871-1953) – established beriberi to exist in guinea pigs

1912 – Casimir Funk (1884-   ) – hypothesis that scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra were present because organic nitrogenous bases in the diet were lacking – coined the term “vitamin” (1)

1914 – Edward Kendall (1886 –      ) – Thyroxine isolated

1915 – E. V. McCollum (1879-1967) – showed rats require two substances in a diet, coined them as “fat-soluble A and water soluble B.” (1)

1920 – J. C. Drummond (1891-1952) – used nomenclature to establish the term vitamin, so established vitamin A and vitamin B (1)

• Leicester, Henry M. The Historical Background of Chemistry; Dover Publications Inc: New York, 1956. 230-240.

Assignment 9

John Kudrysch                                                                                                History of Chemistry

Help Received: Jaffe Book

The cyclotron was invented by Ernest Lawrence in 1932, and it became a new device used in the world of science for that benefited physists and chemists greatly (1). Using high frequency oscillations, particles between electrodes would be bounced around to such an extent that they would be rotating outwards from a circular path away from the center in the magnetic field (1). This device has paved the way for physisists and chemists to discover new uses, both laboratory and practical, and elements. Because of this device, new elements and different variations of elements could be discovered and experimented with. Isotopes could be formed and found, deuterium being an isotope discovered in Colombia University (1). Lawrence used his cyclotron to shoot deuterium against lithium, only to produce helium as an effect. His fame started to spread rapidly, and in no time at all he was recognized for his work and cyclotrons were being produced and manned around many other laboratories and industries. The world of nuclear physics adopted the cyclotron and used it greatly, and this device gave the notion that the transmutation of elements, previously thought to be completely possible by the alchemists of old, could be possible simply because of the particle bombardments that this cyclotron can produce (1). This device also gave the world of medicine a chance because of its ability to isolate particles, where today these particles can be used in treatments for diseases such as cancer.

• Jaffe. Crucibles: The Story of Chemistry, Dover Publications Inc, New York, USA, (1976) pp. 265-282.

Assignment 8

John Kudrysch                                                                                                History of Chemistry

Help Received: Leicester Book

Russian chemistry became the center of the entire world during the 19^th century. During this time the Russian scientists, while native of Russia, were not always located in Russia during their experiments, discoveries, and contributions to chemistry as a whole. For a long standing time the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg was the centerfold for scientific discovery and advancement for Russian scientists (1). However, this academy was often run and occupied with foreign scientists like the Germans because Russia initially lacked the power of scientists to occupy seats in the Academy. Once these Russian scientists developed and made a name for themselves they returned to their universities and took over seats where foreign scientists once sat instead (1). This movement gave the world renknown scientists such as Mendeleev, Butlerov, and Markovnikov (1). Mendeleev is renown for his contribution in developing the period table of elements, and through this he was able to infer and determine the properties of several elements that had yet to even be discovered (1). Mendeleev was also the chief scientist behind the research and determination of vodka. Markovnikov discovered napthenes, and developed the addition rule in organic chemistry that is now known as Markovnikov’s rule. Butlerov was the mentor of Markovnikov, and was essentially the backbone behind the establishment of organic chemistry thanks to his contributions and book (1). The Russian chemistry brought to the world during this time period was scattered around, and a lot of huge contributions were brought in from more than just the Russian scientists. It was, however, the Russian scientists the paved the way in terms of establishing an order, rule, and determination for a lot of organic reactions and developing the periodic table.

(1). H.M. Leicester. The Historical Background of Chemistry, Dover Publications Inc, New York, USA, (1956) pp. 192-  218.

Assignment 7

John Kudrysch                                                                                                History of Chemistry

Help Received: Leicester Book

The laws of atomic combination are already known to us but in the late 18^th, early 19^th, century Benjamin Richter was the  man to revolutionize how we today see chemical reactions in their entirety. Stoichiometry was not a known aspect of chemistry, but Richter coined the term and showed through his notes of experimentation that it was possible to realize what was being formed if the initial compounds were known (1). So, in essence he proved that AB and CD added together will yield AC and BD, but if the initial compositions of AB and CD were known then AC and BD could also be calculated (1). This was breakthrough, but unfortunately for his time his work did not influence the time he lived in because of all the mathematical relationships he was trying to prove through this method (1). Dalton came up with a theory where he organized atoms into circles, and gave them symbols or shaded them differently to represent each element he wanted to work with (1). This allowed him to visually show his idea how he believed atoms interacted and bound together to create different compounds. Water, for example, would have hydrogen and oxygen in it since at that time both elements were proven to exist as water together (1). This, however, was unrefined and underdeveloped. Dalton never really changed his theory but the concept allowed for future chemists to build off of it and gradually come to the truth that we now know (1). The first part of the 19^th century allowed for an observation of elements unlike previous years. Here we have quantitative properties of compounds, possible accurate relationships between compounds expressed, and the identification of elements and compounds as separate entities (1).

(1). H.M. Leicester. The Historical Background of Chemistry, Dover Publications Inc, New York, USA, (1956) pp. 150-164

Assignment 6

John Kudrysch                                                                                                History of Chemistry

Help Received: Jaffe Book

Marie Curie, a polish physicist, revolutionized and brought radioactive research forward through an incredible amount of dangerous work. Svent Arrhenius is known to be a revolutionary in the sense of introducing physical chemistry into the world. Both of these scientists are great, and at the same time they both had to overcome difficult obstacles to get recognized for how worthy they really were in their field of study. Arrhenius worked tirelessly in order to come up with his theory for his dissertation for his doctoral degree. This effort was met with struggle when people around him, such as Cleve, offered no support simply because it was a theory (1). Many people could not fathom the idea that ions were the sole aspects that took part in the reactions of solution, and even after Arrhenius showed off his dissertation to his university they rejected him. Even though they rejected him they gave him his doctoral because of his effort, but pushed the theory aside completely. For a while he tried selling his thesis off to many scientists, all of whom rejected it entirely or just did not respond (1). It wasn’t until Ostwald was sent the paper that he had gotten any support of his findings. For years, with the support of Ostwald and eventually van’t Hoff, he traveled around and theorized in hopes of having his theory a breakthrough (1). I do not feel that this type of rejection would be met with today. There are many prospects happening in the field of science, and there are experimental chemists and physicists that work tirelessly as well in order to support people’s theories or findings. I feel Arrhenius would have found the help he needed better in today’s world than back then.

Marie Curie hypothesized a new element, which would later become two known as polonium and radium, was the reason behind increased activity in a piece of uranium ore (1). A huge factor that came into the picture, before she could even start the experiment, was support. She had to borrow pitchblende and do all the work by herself with the help of her husband Pierre (1). Through tireless effort she struggled to prove that these elements existed, radium more so than polonium because of Pierre’s death (1). In today’s world this kind of struggle would be hard to comprehend. There are many people out there working under grants and other industry “dimes” in order to reveal or prove the next great breakthrough in science or medicine. If Marie Curie were to be doing this research today it would not only be faster because of the multitude of people working but all the shortcomings, like getting sick and taking breaks, would not be as strenuous on her body. She did the manual labor herself, which is part of the reasons the story is so great.

(1). B. Jaffe. Crucibles: The Story of Chemistry, Dover Publications Inc, New York, USA, (1976) pp. 164-196.

Assignment 5