Archimedes (Download File)

Math, science, innovation, and brilliance are all words that are normally used to describe the type of man Archimedes of Syracuse was. His knowledge gave the world decades of innovation ahead of their time. He is the man known to have apparently exclaimed, “Eureka!” through the streets of Syracuse after a huge significant discovery. The theorems and principles that Archimedes had developed over the course of his life revolutionized warfare, science, and mathematics. Even to this day some of his inventions are widely used, and the concepts of several inventions have been utilized in a plethora of inventions throughout the centuries. Archimedes was a man of great value in the era he lived in, and continues to have a dramatic impact on the world.

A place called Syracuse, Sicily, what is now Italy, is the town where Archimedes was born into this world in 287 BC.¹ Little did the people of Syracuse know on that night that a legend amongst scientists, mathematicians, historians, and even future humanists was born. Archimedes was born into the family of a known mathematician and astronomer named Phidias.² The youthful years he endured on Syracuse were focused on developing his eventual, what Galileo describes as “divine,” mind towards mathematics and innovation.³ His knack for solving problems and thinking outside of the ordinary, and rather scientifically, developed as his early years were spent in Syracuse. Eventually he grew up and had a desire to learn more. His time spent in Syracuse was not wasted, and he was smart enough to expand his mind outside of the city and travel to Alexandria once he found out he didn’t have anything else to learn from his teachers in his home town.⁴ In Alexandria, Archimedes eventually worked alongside of the most well-known scholars who lived there named Euclid. Having a compilation of geometrical and mathematical papers called “The Elements,” Euclid was known for his mathematical mind.⁵ His time spent in Alexandria were not wasted, and eventually Archimedes would find himself traveling back home in hopes of using his newfound knowledge to refine his own mind and explore possibilities in invention.

When a person thinks of Archimedes they usually associate the term “Eureka!”, meaning in ancient Greek “I have found it!” with him.⁶ The narrative of that story revolves around his discovering of determining the volume of a substance, in this case particularly a crown of gold, for the King Hiero II.⁷ The legend goes to explain that his task was to determine whether or not the crown was made solely of gold for the king, and he had to do it without harming the crown itself. As he is sitting in the tub Archimedes notices the rising and falling of the water level, and determines that he could simply measure the displacement of the water by placing the crown’s mass compared to that of the mass of gold that was provided. When he figured it out, he was apparently running through the streets naked out of excitement screaming “Eureka!”⁸ While the legend itself is most likely a hyperbole of what actually happened, the task of finding out the crown’s purity in gold was accomplished, but probably through the means of what is known as hydrostatics on a more accurate scale where he could actually measure the levels of water.

The folklore of Archimedes does not end there, and these stories just go to prove how great the man’s mind was. People in his century, and many afterwards, could not explain scientifically what actually occurred in the man’s head. Instead they decided to make up stories about what actually happened to glorify the man beyond what he actually accomplished. Many people believe that these stories of how he defended the city of Syracuse with a laser were completely true, when actually the “heat ray” type weapon was never actually officially recorded in history.⁹

The siege of Syracuse did not start off as a siege. At first it was an assault, and Archimedes machines and inventions against the Roman army were so effective that they had to siege and conquer strategic points in order to trick the people of Syracuse that the entire city had fallen.¹⁰ This was of no fault to Archimedes inventions, which just goes to prove how effective they were and how much of an asset he was to everything revolving around that city. This siege was later described by scholars in entirely fictitious ways in order to explain the devastation Archimedes inventions caused the Roman fleet and their army. The idea of a “heat ray” type weapon surfaced in stories, and the “heat ray” of Archimedes is not considered a historical aspect of his actual life.¹¹

Archimedes met his fate at the siege of Syracus. Many people have speculated how he died, but it is widely known and accepted that he was accidentally cut down by a Roman foot soldier when he failed to identify himself.¹² This was a great loss to not only the people of Syracuse and the ancient Greek world, but also to the Romans. The Roman general who sieged Syracuse, General Marcellus, strictly ordered that Archimedes be taken alive and not killed due to his widely known knowledge around the Mediterranean at the time.¹³ The loss of the great mind of Archimedes is speculated to most likely held back innovation in the Mediterranean several centuries. The humanists of Galileo Galilei’s time revered Archimedes’ mathematical and scientific mind rather than the innovative part of the man.¹⁴

Archimedes made his mark in more than just the field of innovation and inventions, but also in the field of mathematics and science. Galileo admires him and called him “divine,” while a lot of his work actually was inspired by Archimedes work before him. He studied in Alexandria, where his mind developed and matured beyond even the books he learned from in order to progress the Greek world through engineering defensive machines for Syracuse and mathematical means of calculations and probabilities. The scholar was a man that even the Romans had wanted to acquire for their purposes, but his loyalty to his home of Syracuse eventually would him in the grave by a Roman soldier who was apparently too abrasive, or so the story is told.

Bibliography

Africa, Thomas W., “Archimedes through the Looking-Glass.” The Classical World 68. 5

(February 1975) 305-308

“Archimedes.” Wikipedia. Accessed December 1, 2014.

http://En.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes

Google: Google Image:

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Aero_p044.shtml

Laird, W. R., “Archimedes among the Humanists,” Isis 82. 4 (December 1991) 628-638

“The Archimedes Palimpsest,” Archimedes Palimpsest. Accessed December 1, 2014.

http://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/about/history/archimedes.php

Gymnasium Paper (Download File)

The history behind the gymnasium, and how it came to be so important throughout all of ancient Greece, has captured the attention of many scholars and archaeologists throughout the past several hundred years. Today’s cultures and civilizations know of the gymnasium as a place where people exercise, participate in sports, and sometimes socialize with those who are there with you. The aspect of that social norm started with the ancient Greeks. Over two millennia and the couple centuries that have followed it, the social interactions that the Greeks used the gymnasia for has expanded itself into cultures around the world. The ancient Greeks did not just use the gymnasiums has a place of exercise and socializing, but it was also used for educating the citizens of ancient Greece, such as Athens.

It is speculated that the appearance of the first gymnasia in ancient Greek history was around the middle of the 6^th century.¹ The ancient Greek people used the word gymnasion to describe the place where people went to exercise naked.² Eventually the Latin version of the word, gymnasium, would become the name of the institution that the ancient Greeks had developed.³ The gymnasium was a unique and some would say vital part of the ancient Greek culture. Once the gymnasium was established it became the center of life for many who enjoyed athleticism and general exercising. When it first surfaced in the ancient Greek world the gymnasia were thought solely as a place for athleticism, competition, and physical activity.⁴ Because so many people used the gymnasium there had to be order within it. A gymnasiarch was a public official who was charged with overseeing the gymnasium.⁵ These gymnasiarchs were responsible for observing and looking out for the people competing publicly, as well as training individually. These competitions often involved festivals, where the gymnasiarchs would also have to be organize and maintain the gymnasium properly during their appointed time.⁶ The original function of the gymnasium stayed its purpose throughout history, but within time new uses for them became apparent throughout history.⁷

Young men often engaged in physical exercise and activities within the gymnasium regularly, that much is already known. Through the use of the gymnasium by younger and older men alike, eventually the gymnasium gradually evolved into a place where someone could get a higher and adult education as well.⁸ A non-deliberate byproduct of having daily exercise and bathing together brought these men together to form a more sophisticated social intercourse of serious conversations and relaxation.⁹ Through the years eventually the gymnasia developed into learning centers, and soon famous scholars and philosophers would have their own established gymnasiums. Among these philosophers are Plato and Aristotle.

Initially built as a gymnasium, the famous Academy of Plato became an institute for higher learning in Classical Athens.¹⁰ The Academy was one of several gymnasia in Athens where higher learning could be conducted. The Lyceum and Cynosarges were both gymnasia where Athenians could go to learn through the teachings of sophists.¹¹ In these gymnasia sophists, ancient professors in philosophy, music, and mathematics, taught the ancient Greek population. The Classical Age did not stop the gymnasia from flourishing in popularity. The gymnasiums did exceedingly well during the Hellenistic Age of ancient Greece, they were utilized for intellectual and athletic purposes like it was originally intended for.¹²

Outside of the day-to-day activities within the gymnasium, occasionally one could be used for significant military purposes as well. If need be a gymnasium could be held to the same standard as training grounds or barracks for soldiers of an army. Ephesus’ gymnasium was utilized heavily by Agesilaus’s troops around 396 BCE in order to get his troops in shape.¹³ The gymnasiums could be utilized for physical training needs, but never were they solely used for just that. Military tactics were sometimes studied as well in gymnasia, and the Athenians used the Lyceum for military drill during the Peloponnesian War.¹⁴ Their isolated locations outside of the city limits made it easy for enemy forces to take over for their advantage.

Many festivals, Olympic style sporting events, and personal parties were thrown in gymnasiums over the centuries.¹⁵ Over the course of the centuries the gymnasia turned from a social type environment for everyone to more of a “country club” for those who knew who to talk to in order to get in. This type of environment attracted aristocrats and those with great wealth, where their time spent in the gymnasium socializing was under a hot bath with expensive perfumes and other notable expenditures.¹⁶

Throughout history the gymnasium has evolved into many forms, but it always kept its primary function as a place for the populace to exercise, compete, and socialize. The transformation of the gymnasium being an all athletic building into a place for academic learning allowed philosophers such as Plato to construct places like the Academy. Its transformation into such institutions still echo into today’s world as massive universities of higher learning. Military use of the gymnasia has been shown to be relevant, where its structures and set-up allow troops and generals to train and devise strategies all under one roof.

 Bibliography

Forbes, Clarence A., “Expanded Uses of the Greek Gymnasium,” Classical Philology 40. 1

(January 1945) 32-42

“Gymnasium (Ancient Greece).” Wikipedia. Accessed October 27, 2014.

http://En.wikipedia.org/wiki/gymnasium_(ancient_greece)

Google: Google Book:

Kyle, Donald G. Atheltics in Ancient Athens. 2nd ed. The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1993.

240. Accessed October 27, 2014

Google: Google Image:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Palestra,_Pompeii.jpg

1Donald G. Kyle. Atheltics in Ancient Athens. 2nd ed. The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1993.

Athena Nike Paper (Download File)

The Acropolis of Athens is a monument for several very famous structures that represent the Classical age of ancient Greece. Among these structures is the temple of Athena Nike. The temple is smaller in size compared to the other structures, but very famous Ionic structure has made it iconic for those that look up at the Acropolis rock. The temple was originally built as an altar to worship Athena in the Archaic Age of ancient Greece the altar was eventually destroyed. In its place a new temple was erected in honor of the Goddess of Victory during a time of war. Within the temple was a statue of Athena Nike where a wingless representation of her stood for the people of Athens. Towards the end of the 5^th century BCE in ancient Greece the temple was a symbol of victory over the Spartans during the Peloponnesian war and hopeful prosperity.

The current temple that stands on the Acropolis of Athens is not the original temple that once stood where it is. In 480 BCE the Persians demolished the first temple dedicated to Athena which was built during the Archaic Age of ancient Greek history¹². The desire and ambition to defeat Sparta during the late 5^th century during the Peloponnesian war was the purpose behind the decision in constructing the temple of Athena Nike³. The location on a rocky ledge allowed the Athenian people to look towards the temple in their prayers for success and prosperity in the war’s outcome. The current Classical temple was not completed until 420 BCE. The construction of the Temple of Athena Nike marks the first notable and iconic architectural structure on the Acropolis of Athens⁴. After its completion a parapet was constructed several years after the completion of the temple in order to prevent people from falling off the edge of the Acropolis rock from where the temple was located⁵.

After its counterpart was destroyed by the Persians, the current temple of Athena Nike was constructed in stages of the Peloponnesian War. While small compared to the other structures on the Acropolis of Athens the temple greets visitors who approach the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Located on the southeast edge and facing the east, the Temple of Athena Nike is one of the most visible structures when looking up at the Acropolis rock⁶. The Temple of Athena Nike rests on the Acropolis rock thanks to the Athenian architect Kallikrates. Credited for the design of the temple, Kallikrates is also credited with being a co-architect with a Greek man named Ictinus, where the two of them designed the Parthenon together and oversaw its construction together⁷.

The architectural designs of the small temple give it diffident proportions, but the temple served its purpose to the Athenians during the time period it was constructed. The four column style of the temple gives it its iconic design where the dimensions of 27 feet long, 18.5 feet wide, and 23 feet tall,” represent the entirety of the temple⁸. The space in the center of the temple, known as a cella or naos, is merely 5m x 5m. The columns are unlike the other columns, having a height to diameter 7:1 ratio compared to the more common 9:1 or 10:1 ratio of Ionic buildings of the time⁹. Across the bands, or entablature, of the temple were frieze depictions of various scenarios and figures. The style that the frieze was sculpted in is that of the known classical era type of architecture¹⁰.

As a person scales upward towards the Propylaea of the Acropolis the parapet on the temple can be observed. On the parapet is a frieze where a montage of figures in different poses decorates the exterior. The figures vary on location around the frieze, and they appear to portray different Athenian thoughts and views about the Peloponnesian war. Some sections of the frieze portray a man laying down as if he was going to be defeated, and others show the figures seemingly dead and losing a massive battle¹¹. Elizabeth Pumberton speculates that the frieze has been interpreted differently depending on the scholar¹². This repetitious design across the parapet suggest that the war was thought as rough and construed something that had to be endured for the citizens of Athens¹³.

The name Athena Nike is translated as the goddess of victory. The victory against the Spartans is what inspired the construction of the temple in the first place. The center of the temple, the cella, stood a statue of Athena Nike. This statue is recorded to be made of wood, where Athena was holding a pomegranate in her right hand and a shield in her left hand¹⁴. The Nike statues of the time period had no wings, so as customary the Athena Nike statue did not have wings when it was created during that time. The name Apteros Nike was given to the temple and goddess statue by Athenians a few centuries later. Apteros Nike means wing-less victory, where it is said that the statue is wingless so that it cannot leave the city of Athens¹⁵.

After the period of ancient Greece the temple went through a series of mishaps, abuse, and eventual destruction. In the 5^th century AD the temple was eventually converted into a church rather than a temple that praised Athena¹⁶. During the period of the Ottoman period, the temple was used as a munitions store¹⁷. Instead of a church or temple it was now a market for weapon distribution. Eventually the Turks destroyed it in the late 17^th century, and the temple was not rebuilt until the 19^th century after the Greek War of Independence¹⁸.

The temple of Athena Nike is small in dimension compared to the other ancient Greek structures on top of the Acropolis of Athens, but the temple has made its mark of being very symbolic and iconic in nature for the Athenian people in the Classical age of ancient Greece. The temple itself sits over the city of Athens for all of the Athenians to see during the Peloponnesian war as a symbol of hope, victory, and prosperity. During the great struggle of the war the frieze architecture depicts a series of Athena Nike poses in a symbolization of victory against the Spartans during the great struggle. Converted into a church, munitions store, and eventually destroyed the Temple of Athena Nike still stands after being reconstructed yet again.

 Bibliography

Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. “Callicrates,” accessed September 24, 2014,

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/89892/Callicrates

Google: Google Images

http://www.aviewoncities.com/img/athens/kvegr0450s.jpg

Pemberton, Elizabeth Gummey, “The East and West Friezes of the Temple of Athena Nike,”

American Journal of Archaeology 76. 3 (July 1972) 303-310

“Temple of Athena Nike.” Ancient Greece (Temple of Athena Nike). Accessed September 24,

2014. http://www.ancient-greece.org/architecture/athena-nike.html

“Temple of Athena Nike, Athens.” Sacred Destinations (Temple of Athena Nike). Accessed

September 24, 2014. http://www.sacred-destinations.com/greece/athens-temple-of-athena-nike

“Temple of Athena Nike.” Wikipedia. Accessed October 10, 2014.

http://En.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike

Venieri, Ioanna. “Temple of Athena Nike.” Ministry of Culture and Sports. January 1, 2012.

Accessed September 24, 2014. http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=982

Reflective for Ancient Greece HI-304X-01 (Download File)

The ancient Greek civilization course offered by Colonel Sheldon was a very engaging course. The professor did not hold back explaining the differences of the art styles throughout the eras, and her storytelling like lessons brought the events of ancient Greece to reality. Not everything that we “know” about ancient Greece is deemed 100 percent true, such as the Trojan War. Not every Spartan army was undefeatable, and their society was stricter with how men lived than what we presume them to be in books and popular movies. The armies and weapons of ancient Greek societies were not as uniform as modern culture has portrayed them. The explored knowledge of how ancient Greek people lived, innovated, recorded history, and created their architecture has been analyzed and learned.

History of ancient Greece was not officially recorded until the time period between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. Until Herodotus, who has been called the father of history for being the first person to document events such as wars, the only “history” we have of ancient Greece is of that from plays, epic poems, and other stories from people such as Homer. The ancient Greek course broke down the time periods from the Bronze Age of before 1250 BC, all the way to the Classical Age of the fifth century BC. The architecture was presented by the professor to the class in order to actually understand how the artists portrayed the people of the eras. Depending on where society thrived in ancient Greece also affected the way the architecture turned out to be as well. Many believe that architecture was highly influenced by Egyptian architecture in the archaic age, meaning that by the time the Classical Age came around the world of “Greece” was not so shut out from the world. There are many factors to appreciate about ancient Greece as well, and the three papers of research that were conducted for this course helped the understanding of many concepts about the culture without being in the class itself.

Researching and learning the history of the temple of Athena Nike was a rewarding experience as a whole. The research has given me a new perspective as to how the ancient Greek people, particularly in Athens, used temples and architecture to portray their feelings towards current events in their daily lives. The architecture on the frieze specifically of the temple portrays different figures in a variety of poses in representation of the Peloponnesian war. The temple itself was built as a symbol of victory against the Spartans and prosperity for the Athenians. Doing this paper helped the realization that people of ancient Greece, particularly Athens during the Peloponnesian war, relied on temples for the social convention of rallying together for a single purpose. Society relied on temples for inspiration during times of turmoil and distraught.

Researching and learning the history, functions, and cultural impact of the gymnasia was a rewarding experience as a whole. The research showed the cultural importance of attending gymnasium events, given the cultural impact that it had ancient Greek society. People would go to the gymnasia not just to exercise and participate in sporting events, but they would also go there to bathe, commune, study through the sophists, and play music. The usage of the gymnasia developed over the centuries, and even today the term gymnasium is used for the same purposes the ancient Greeks developed them for. It just shows how important they were. Socrates’ students, Aristotle and Plato, even took to utilizing gymnasia in order to advance their philosophy and give the people a chance to expand their knowledge and education if they had the money and time. Some sophists didn’t even charge in order to educate people, and that reflected how some philosophers of ancient Greece valued education above wealth and prosperity. The utilization of the gymnasia by the citizens and aristocrats of Athens and other polis allowed a social gathering of minds that ran the governments. It is clear that the ancient Greek society has given the world today a remarkable legacy in utilizing a simple building to bring so many people together.

The man named Archimedes was found to be an inspiring person who revolutionized Greek culture through his innovation of inventions and mathematical genius. It is eye opening that he alone gave so much to the Greeks that through him the cultures thrived better for generations afterwards just because of his inventions. The professor often talked about how innovative the ancient Greeks were, where the civilizations were on the line of superhuman in the way they progressed. There are even doubters in today’s world whether or not the ancient Greek civilizations were that innovative simply because of how innovative they were. Archimedes is a prime example of why this innovation occurred, and the lessons taken from the class and researching this paper has given insight to the whole picture.

In short the articles presented a new way for me to see how the people of ancient Greece functioned and felt within their culture of the time. The Athenians were proud of their accomplishments, so they erected statues and temples to show their success and superstitiously ensure their continued success. It was clear that the Athenians exhibited great pride during these times. The gymnasium was a great way for people to gather for physical activity, learn about philosophy under the study of great minds, and exchange in a social convention open to the elites of society. The gymnasium had its effect on ancient Greek society, as well as continue into the western culture even to this day. Archimedes proved to be one of the great minds of the Hellenistic Age, and it was during this time that a revolution of innovation and progress gave historians the question as to whether or not such a thing truly happened because of how progressive the culture became. The class presented a new light into how ancient Greece truly functioned, and how its people expressed themselves during the age and time. Their progression lead to a revolution for all civilizations today, and continue to be one of the most studied and sought after cultures to fully understand.