1. INTRODUCTION

The world’s vast oceans seemingly separate the diverse cultures and societies on each continent. Even when some cultures are geographically connected, humans will build non-physical barriers that seemingly separate cultures and societies. One major takeaway from the History of Information Technology course was that no matter the culture or society, when it comes to the development of information technology, the factors the driving factors are all the same. Of all the driving factors I encountered, there were three main factors that were especially prevalent across all of my research.  Assisting me in realizing this was the ePortfolio platform which was a great organizational asset where I could easily refer to my previous assignments. The research I have done for this course has shown that between all of the diverse cultures and societies of the world, their development of technology has been driven by an endless desire for convenience, reliability, and political motives as shown in examples from written communication in ancient China to wired communication in 19^th century United States.

2. SOCIETY AND CULTURE SIMILARITIES

2.1 Convenient technology

Ease of access, speed of use, and usability are all ways to describe convenience as it relates to information technology. Through the course of History of Information Technology, I realized that the human desire for convenience drives the development of information technology across cultures and societies, no matter where they are in the world. In my first essay [Artifact 1] I researched the written communication methods of ancient China. Essentially, the written Chinese language started as a simple pictographic script and transformed into an advanced logographic writing system. Through the course of several dynasty, ancient Chinese people realized that writing in a pictographic script had absolutely no ease of access, speed of use or usability needed to be convenient. Therefore, it became clear to the Chinese people that in order to have an effective writing system it needed to be usable by the common people i.e. convenient to the masses. In my third essay [Artifact 3] I researched telegraph communication. Long distance methods of communication already existed prior to the telegraph, but it was made clear that a desire for a more convenient method of long distance communication helped drive the development of the telegraph. The first mass use of the telegraph came in the United States during the 19^th century. This immediately shows an entire shift in culture and society from ancient China. However, I realized that even in the 19^th century U.S., the same main driving factor that helped the Chinese was also present. For example, prior to the development of the telegraph, the U.S. did have forms of long distance communication. Alike with Chinese early writing systems, the U.S.’s forms of long distance communication were very cumbersome. Therefore, American designers responded to the demands for convenient methods of long distance communication and developed the telegraph. As it can be seen with the examples from vastly different societies, the people’s desire for convenience helped drive the development of better technology. But, from my research I found that not only so societies have similarities in the demands for convenience, but they also have in common the fact that they demand their technology to consistently work.

2.2 Reliable technology

In order for it to be effective, technology must work consistently when it is used. This can be described as reliability and in the History of Information Technology, I discovered that in addition to convenience, reliability is a major change factor. In my second writing assignment [Artifact 2] I discussed how the development of the helicopter as a means of transportation was continually improved upon because societies in various countries demanded more reliable models. The first helicopters started off as flying contraptions that did indeed work, but not necessarily every time and to its full potential. Also, the helicopter needed to be reliable in any environment or role it could be used in around the world. Given that, the demand for reliability drove designers to continuously build better models of the helicopter. Even though each specific helicopter model varied across societies, they all had in common the fact that they demanded it to be more reliable. In my third writing assignment [Artifact 3] I discovered that there was initially slow support for the telegraph because it did not consistently work. Much like the initial helicopters invented, the first telegraph did indeed work, but not every time it was used. The innovators responded to the calls for a more reliable method of sending the messages, which led to special insulated wires to be built. Clearly, across societies, reliability was a common factor in the development of new technology. But, how societies put the reliable and convenient technology to use is something in common.

2.3 Technology for political use

When analyzing exactly how societies put their technologies to use, I came across a similarity in all of my research. No matter the society, the ruling elite/political hierarchy would always play a major role in the development of information technology. This is extremely important because the political hierarchy of society generally has more resources at its disposal in order to ensure that technology is created to its full potential. For example, it was made clear that two very different societies; ancient China and 19^th century United States both had means of communication technology developed in part because of the need for it as a political tool. From the very first dynasties in China, politics played a role in the development of information technology. In my first essay [Artifact 1] I found in my research that Chinese script was improved because the political leader in an early Chinese dynasty needed a better way to keep records. As the political elite, that Chinese emperor demanded a better method of writing and the Chinese innovators responded with a new writing system. Had the emperor not demanded this, as I found out, the Chinese language would have never developed into what we know it as today. That writing system then was able to trickle down to the non-elites in society so that they could benefit from using a better writing system. In my third essay [Artifact 3] I found out that because the U.S. government had particular interests in the communication ability of the telegraph, they invested money in its development and improvement. The very first practical test line of the telegraph was conducted with funds supplied by the U.S. government. The U.S. government represented the political elite, and without its large amount of the support, I discovered that it was very likely that the telegraph never would have been successful as a form of communication.

3. CONCLUSION

When I started researching my artifacts for this course, I made the mistake of thinking I would discover how drastically different cultures were as they relate to information technology. Using ePortfolio for my artifacts enabled me to reflect upon and make such connections between vastly different societies and cultures. I was shocked to find out that in many respects, cultures are very similar when it comes to developing information technology. The aspects of convenience, reliability, and political usability are driving factors that are able to cross the boundaries of society and culture.  If a society finds something useful, they will take it and try to make it even better because they demand it to be more convenient, reliable, and politically useful. This is what makes cultures as different as the U.S. and China have something in common when it relates to the development of information technology.

References

[Artifact 1] Matthew Kenkel, “Ancient Chinese Communication”

[Artifact 2] Matthew Kenkel, “Helicopter Transportation”

[Artifact 3] Matthew Kenkel, “Telegraph Communication”

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1. INTRODUCTION

             In the early nineteenth century, instant communication over long distances was something of a dream. The American people were accustomed to the fact that sending a message takes days to travel over long distances, especially given the U.S.’s westward expansion. At that time though, wired technology wasn’t even conceived as a possible solution to the long communication times. But, a technological innovation came to the forefront that would completely change the ease and speed of communication across the U.S. It was in the 1830s that a man named Samuel Morse introduced the first form of long distance, instant, and wired communication to the United States known as the telegraph. The form of wired communication that Morse introduced became widely used, enhanced, and adapted in the U.S., impacting American society while paving the way for future technology.

2. HISTORY OF TELEGRAPH COMMUNICATION

2.1 Introduction of the telegraph

            The telegraph was the very first method of wired telecommunication introduced in to the U.S. [1] It was introduced when Samuel Morse obtained a patent in 1838 for a single-wire electric telegraph. [1] Essentially, Morse’s telegraph worked as a switch turning on an electric current when the sender depressed a button. [2] The electric current would then be sent along a wire where a receiver would interpret the on and off switches of the electrical current. Morse was able to assign an alphabet to the switching on and off of the electrical current. Known as Morse code, it gave the series of dots (short electrical currents) and dashes (longer electrical currents) a set of letters. [3]

Figure 1. An example of the code developed by Morse [4]

2.2 Expansion of telegraph use in the U.S.

By 1843, the U.S. government realized the potential of an electric telegraph and granted Morse $30,000 to build an experimental telegraph line from Washington to Baltimore. [1] Therefore, the initial interest by the U.S. government impacted the further development of the telegraph because the money Morse received gave him a chance to prove that his telegraph system would work over long distance. Initially, the first telegraph was plagued by communications problems. The connection between the sending and receiving end was very unreliable due to effects on the wires such as weather and terrain. The need for a more reliable way to transmit the messages led to the invention of insulated telegraph wires. [3] Suddenly, proving that the Washington to Baltimore telegraph line worked, telegraph lines connected New York, Washington, Buffalo, Boston and New Orleans. [1]

3. IMPACT OF THE TELEGRAPH

3.1 Pre – American Civil War impacts

            Once the telegraph had spread enough to cover the eastern portion of the U.S. in 1850, its impacts on American society to that point were clear. The telegraph network allowed for a faster spread of news coverage. [5] Newspaper companies could quickly distribute information to different offices thousands of miles apart, which could then print the stories. Therefore, the American society benefited by being able to stay up to date on news stories. Proving to be a success with spreading news information, the telegraph then moved on to have an impact on the American battlefield.

3.2 Civil War impacts of the telegraph

            By the start of the American Civil War in 1861, the U.S. already had a large network of telegraph lines in use. However, most of the lines were situated in States which did not secede from the Union. Therefore, the Union had an effective means of high speed and long distance communication it could use. In fact, the Union Army had established the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps for the sole use of effectively using the telegraph network. [6] The telegraph network used by the Union allowed its commanders to send real-time battlefield reports to other commanders and the President. [6] The President and other commanders could then use the real-time information for strategy making, which gave the Union Army a large advantages over the Confederates.

Figure 2. A depiction of the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps in the Civil War [7]

3.3 Post – Civil War impacts

            Following the end of the Civil War in 1865, the U.S. continued to see widespread use of the telegraph. It especially saw a major expansion in use in U.S. financial markets. Before the telegraph, for example, prices in one city could lag behind another city because of slow communication times in the market. [1] But, with a telegraph network that spread coast to coast, the financial information could be spread at a much faster pace. This impacted American society because it led to higher market investments which drove the prices down for average consumers. [1]

4. PEOPLE’S IMPACT ON THE TELEGRAPH

            At several points in the telegraph’s history, American people worked to improve its use. The initial impact from people came from the need for a reliable form of long distance communication. As mentioned early, special insolated wires were invented to be used to increase the reliability of the telegraphs’ transmissions. [3] Also, when the American people began to expand westward, they demanded a more efficient and faster form of communication. This was because the only methods of communicating with American’s in the far west was with postal mail, as carried by ventures like the Pony Express which were comparatively slow. Therefore, in 1861, the first transcontinental telegraph line was created. [5] Finally, during the expansion of the telegraph lines westward, the system was plagued by poor transmission problems. The American people impacted the solution for the transmission problems because they demanded more regulations pertaining to telegraph communication. [1] Therefore, the industry became consolidated in companies such as Western Union.  By 1900, 63.2 million messages were sent over Western Unions’ lines every year. [1]

Figure 3. Map of the first Transcontinental telegraph line [8]

5. CONCLUSION

            The telegraph that Samuel Morse introduced left an impact on American society. It not only allowed news to be spread faster to the American people and allow settlers in the Western U.S. to communicate, but it also helped the Union win the American Civil War. The American people impacted the telegraph over time and forced it to adapt to their needs, such as a higher level of reliability. But, by 1945 the telegraph succumbed to its limitations in being a one-way form of wired communication and saw the telephone replace it as the dominant means of long distance communication. [1]

References

[1] “History of the U.S. Telegraph Industry.” EHnet. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

[2] UniTech. “Telegraph.” Connected Earth: How the Telegraph Works. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

[3] “Morse Code & the Telegraph.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2009. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

[4] https://www.offgridweb.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Learn-morse-code-alphabet.jpg

[5] “The Telegraph.” American Eras. Encyclopedia.com, n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

[6] “Civil War Technology.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2010. Web. 17 Apr. 2017.

[7] http://civilwarthirdperiodunion1.weebly.com/uploads/2/6/8/6/26861949/1806247_orig.jpg

[8] http://learningabe.info/Transcontinental_Telegraph_System_files/image001.jpg

Help Received: Cited Sources,

easybib.com for citing references, professor and peer feedback

1. INTRODUCTION

In 400 BCE China, no one could have guessed that the design for a simple children’s toy would be developed into a form of aerial transportation. From the reference of those toys in 400 BCE China to the gyroplanes built by the French in 1907, humans have dreamt of vertical flight for thousands of years. Through history, this dream was pursued by countless innovators such a Leonardo da Vinci and Thomas Edison. But, it was early in the twentieth century that the technology of rotary wing transportation accelerated to the point of practical use. From that point on, rotary wing aircraft, known as helicopters have impacted society by providing a convenient method of rapid transportation that has uses ranging from civilian medical transportation to carrying troops into combat.

2. EARLY ROTARY WING DESIGNS AND IMPACTS

2.1 Pre-manned flight

The early history of rotor wing transportation was marked by significant innovations followed by hundreds of years of stagnation. For example, the first vertical flight design came from China around 400 BCE [1]. It involved rolling a stick attached to a bamboo rotor, which would then fly. The next recorded vertical flight design did not come until the 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci documented in detail his idea for vertical flight, known as the vertical screw. However, da Vinci’s design never made it past a written stage [1]. Although there were no major innovations in vertical flight from the 1480s to the late nineteenth century, man’s general interest in being able to fly directly impacted the development of helicopters. It did this because between the fifteenth and nineteenth century countless inventors attempted to construct vertical flying contraptions. Although none of them worked, it impacted society by providing the research necessary for coming up with a final, working design. It was in 1878 that Italian Enrico Fornalli demonstrated that his helicopter design worked, with an unmanned steam powered model which rose to 40 feet and hovered for 20 seconds (see Figure 1) [1]. That design created by Fornalli proved to be crucial, because it led to the next step in helicopter development, manned flight. 

Figure 1: A depiction of Enrico Fornalli’s steamed powered, unmanned helicopter

2.2 Manned Helicopter Flight

            Following the innovative breakthroughs of the early unmanned helicopter prototypes, inventors began to refine their designs and take more risks including actually piloting the helicopters. The first manned helicopter flights were conducted in 1907 by two French brothers; Jacques and Louis Breguet. They flew their helicopter, named Gyroplane No. 1 a few feet off the ground for only less than a minute [1]. Their design was extremely unsteady and impractical, but its invention represented the impact of years of testing and research done by multiple inventors. For example, using previous inventor’s technology, Jacques and Louis Breguet were able to refine the autogiro system in helicopters [4].  Their developments in the autogiro inspired the first practical manned helicopter. Also, the desire of inventors to have an increased level of safety and lift capacity impacted the development of further generations of helicopters. Using the early autogiro designs, a German engineer named Heinrich Focke designed the FW-62 in 1936, which proved to be the world’s first practical helicopter [5]. Not only was it maneuverable, simple, and easy to manufacture, but it could even travel in the air for over an hour [5]. It was originally adopted for use by the German military in 1940. For military reasons, it was designated Fa 223 (see Figure 2). Although it was first employed as a military tool, its major use and impact came from non-military missions. The Fa 223 was used on several occasions for civilian rescue operations [6]. Through its ability to land and take off in otherwise unreachable areas, the Fa 223’s impact was that it proved to society that it filled a gap that airplanes could not fill. The potential of its design was even recognized by Lufthansa, a German airline [6]. But, the Fa 223 was not used on a wide enough military scale during World War II to have a major impact on the outcome of the war.

Figure 2: The first practical helicopter design; the Fa 223

2.3 From the First Manned to First Mass Use of Helicopters

            While the Germans constructed and used the first practical helicopter during World War II, they were not able to mass produce them. The desire for an easily mass producible helicopter impacted the industry and Igor Sikorsky created the first helicopter to be mass produced [7]. Known as the S-300, it was adopted for use by the U.S. military in 1942 [1]. The reason this had a major impact was that the S-300 represented the first helicopter to be produced on a mass scale while being adopted for use by a military. Although the S-300 was not used on a wide scale during World War II, the fact that the U.S. military adopted it on a mass scale proved invaluable for future wars. From the practicality demonstrated by the S-300, the U.S. military recognized that it needed to continue to develop and incorporate helicopters into operations for future wars. Therefore, the U.S. military had a major impact on the continuing development of the helicopter. Also, the desire for increased speed and lift capacity in helicopters impacted companies to build more and more helicopter designs. By investing the time and effort into its development, the U.S. military was able to demonstrate the absolute need for helicopters in conflicts like the Korean and Vietnam War. Helicopters impacted the battlefield by being able to rapidly transport and deploy troops to destroy the enemy [8]. Known as Air Assault, the U.S. military perfected methods of using helicopters to transport troops and destroy enemies during the Korean War and Vietnam War.  Not only that, but helicopters could land troops in remote areas that even airplanes could not access. Using that advantage, helicopters could pick up and transport casualties more rapidly than in any previous war [8]. Therefore one of the clear impacts of the helicopter was in the thousands of lives it saved during both the Korean War and the Vietnam War [8]. Also, following those wars, society had a major impact on the development of wider uses for helicopters. This is because after those wars, hundreds of helicopter pilots trained by the military entered the civilian sector and sought employment using their flying skills [7]. While the military uses for the helicopter proved plentiful in the mid to late 20^th century, they also found their way into a several different uses by civilian organizations. While the military use is still important, in modern day many of the impacts of the helicopter are seen as coming from the civilian sector.

3. MODERN DAY USE AND IMPACTS

            Not only are modern day helicopters used as a major asset in the military sector, they are also used by civilian agencies for reasons such as medical transport, news broadcasting, and police work. The heavy lifting capabilities of certain modern day helicopters makes them ideal for use in construction work. They can carry heavy supplies and equipment to inaccessible areas. Helicopters in this configuration have impact society by being able to place things like radio antennas in remote areas [7]. In addition to this, because helicopters can hover in place at low altitudes, they are highly sought after by news agencies. Helicopters in the news role are equipped with cameras and have been able to give real time traffic conditions and give aerial views of news events [7]. One of the helicopter’s most impactful roles comes from its ability to fight fires in remote areas. Helicopters can be rigged with a water tank and deliver it to areas where firefighters on the ground cannot reach (see Figure 3) [7]. This has impact society by helping to stop the rapid spread of remote wildfires. Finally, aside from its military role, the helicopter’s most notorious role is as an air ambulance. In this capacity, helicopters can quickly reach and transport patients to hospitals for treatment. This can be done when a regular ambulance either cannot access the patient or cannot access them quickly enough [7]. This has impacted society by saving thousands of human lives.

Figure 3: A helicopter dumps water on a forest fire

4. CONCLUSION

Given the fact that the first practical helicopter was built in 1936, it is hard to image that designs for rotary wing machines have been made for thousands of years. Through the collective trial and error of early attempts to make helicopters, inventors like Heinrich Focke were able to make a workable design. Using the principles of that design, companies have continued to make helicopters that have increased in speed, safety, and lift capacity. Through its modern day uses, it has dominated the battlefield and saved lives in the civilian sector.

References

[1] “When Was the First Helicopter Invented?” Upper Limit Aviation. N.p., 08 June 2016. Web. 01 Mar. 2017.

[2] “History of Helicopters.” History of Helicopters. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Mar. 2017.

[3] “Helicopter.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., n.d. Web. 01 Mar. 2017.

[4] “History of Helicopters.” History of Helicopters | American Helicopter Museum and Education Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2017.

[5] “Focke-Wulf Fw 61 Helicopter – Development History, Photos, Technical Data.” Focke-Wulf Fw 61 Helicopter – Development History, Photos, Technical Data. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2017.

[6] “Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 “Drache” Helicopter – Development History, Photos, Technical Data.” Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 “Drache” Helicopter – Development History, Photos, Technical Data. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2017.

[7] “Helicopter.” Helicopter – New World Encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2017.

[8] “The Rise of the Helicopter During the Korean War.” HistoryNet. N.p., 13 Apr. 2016. Web. 21 Mar. 2017.

Photographs:

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http://www.warbirdsresourcegroup.org/LRG/images/lrg0058.jpg

https://inciweb.nwcg.gov/photos/MISNR/2012-05-30-14:16-pine-creek/picts/pict-20120531-130829-0.jpeg

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1. INTRODUCTION

            Running from the pastures of the Tibetan Plateau to the plains and hills of Shandong, the twists and turns of China’s Yellow River hide the gateways to understanding past civilizations.  Following along the fertile banks of the Yellow River, a traveler can come upon cities like Zhengzhou. Hidden beneath Zhengzhou’s modern construction are the artifacts of an ancient Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) city. Shrouded in mystery, the ancient city known as Erligang, was unmatched in size and technology during its existence. However, the former inhabitants of Erligang left behind traces of evidence that help solve the mystery of how they lived. The evidence was not simple tools or structures, but an advanced writing system. That writing system was not just unique to Erligang, but was the form of written communication used by the Shang Dynasty. What started off in the early Shang dynasty as a simple pictographic script transformed into a complex logographic writing system, impacting the Chinese people along the way.

2. EARLY CHINESE WRITING SYSTEMS

2.1 The Oracle Bone

The earliest form of a Chinese writing system was the pictographic script used on the oracle bones [4]. Being pictographic in nature, each inscription represented an object that connected to an overall concept [2]. Used from 1500 to 1000 BCE the oracle bone script was a written form of communication used by societal elites through the assistance of a diviner [2]. Essentially, an elite would hire a diviner for guidance in decision making. The diviner would then carve script into a bone or turtle shell, place it near a fire, and then interpret the results. The use of the oracle bone script impacted the Shang Dynasty’s elites by giving them a way to store records of decisions made and record personal thoughts. But, the elites themselves also had a major impact on the development of the oracle bone. As the elites asked for the diviners help more often, their questions became more complex [3]. Therefore, new characters were refined and added to the script so people could better express themselves. But, this script was still written on shells or bones, which proved to be primitive. As it turns out, the discovery of a new writing material actually led to a change in the writing system itself.

2.2 Greater Seal

            While the original oracle bone script was written on shells or bones, the discovery of bronze as a usable writing material led to a new written form of communication called the greater seal. The greater seal was used in the late Shang to early Zhou dynasties (1100 BCE to 700 BCE) [4]. Although it was similar to the oracle bone script in the fact that it was pictographic, several characters were refined due to the fact that it was easier to write on bronze than bone/shells [2]. Along with the use of bronze as a writing material, the use of a brush and ink instead of etching with a stylus developed with the use of the greater seal [7]. Therefore, the greater seal could be written faster and more efficiently than the oracle bone script. But, even though the greater seal had improvements over the oracle bone script, it was still an extremely complex writing system that the majority of Shang and Zhou society did not have access to. This would cause a dramatic change in the ancient Chinese writing system as more people demand access to an easier writing system.

3. THE SHIFT IN ANCIENT CHINESE WRITING

3.1 Lesser Seal

            The invention of the lesser seal script represented a major shift in ancient Chinese written communication because it was more logographic in nature than its predecessors [4]. This means that the symbols began to represent concepts themselves, not just objects [2]. Lesser seal was developed in 200 BCE under the Qin Dynasty and is still used today in contemporary China [8]. Lesser seal was more simplistic to write than the oracle or greater seal script, which allowed the Qin Dynasty to standardize the writing system across its controlled areas. This standardization impacted the people of the Qin dynasty by allowing them to focus on learning to read and write one set writing system. Previous Chinese writing systems were not standardized and therefore had variations in the sizes and shapes of characters, making it harder for people to learn. Furthermore, the Chinese people themselves had a major impact on this particular writing system. Because a larger amount of people became literate, they were more willing to expand upon the religious beliefs from earlier writing systems and dynasties. Lesser seal characters were more refined and expressive, so more people took up the opportunity to use it. As more people used it, the more the writing system became recognized as a crucial part to a functioning society. For example, the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty, Ch’in Shih Huang Ti, recognized that because the people wanted an easier writing system, his political unity was based upon a unified writing system [8]. As the lesser seal worked its way more and more into ancient Chinese society, groups of people sought to refine the writing system for the own uses.

3.2 Clerkly Script

Clerkly script serves as one of the best examples of the Chinese people’s impact on the writing system. Clerkly script became popular around 500 BCE during the Han Dynasty [4]. The Chinese word for clerkly script, 隶书 (li shu), translates to ‘the script of people of people of low status’ [8]. It was developed because the people of ‘lower status’ working for the Han dynasty needed a more rapid method of writing. They took the characters of the previous lesser seal, simplified them even further and gave the characters more flowing strokes.  In turn, this impacted the Han bureaucracy by giving them a complete method of documenting government affairs. Clerkly script is still used in modern day and its characters are identical to modern Chinese characters [4].  Even though the Han government could easily document affairs using the clerkly script, it still had one major problem; an efficient writing material had not yet been invented.

3.3 Invention of Paper

Now that people of the Han Dynasty had helped develop a writing system that could be rapidly written, it caused the need for a writing material that could be manufactured faster than the bamboo scrolls that had been in use for several hundred years. Around 105 CE, paper was invented in China [5]. Paper was made by pressing a pulp of rice straw and inner tree bark, both of which were plentiful resources in China [5]. The invention of paper during the Han dynasty impacted the Chinese people, because they could not only write rapidly, but also carry and distribute written materials faster than before. Also, the Han Dynasty’s bureaucrats used paper for better record keeping. A major drawback from doing this was that documents written on paper did not last as long as those written on bamboo scrolls [5].

4. CONCLUSION

The evolution of the written form of communication in China impacted the lives of millions of people. From the original oracle bone script, elites could begin to record thoughts and decisions. Then, with the greater seal, writers no longer had to rely on the slow process of etching to be able to write. Instead, they could use a brush and ink to write the elegant, yet pictographic script. Next, a breakthrough occurred with the development of the logographic lesser seal. The Qin standardized the lesser seal, allowing more people besides the elites to learn the written language. Finally, the clerkly script impacted the Chinese people by allowing them to write faster and more efficiently document bureaucratic, scientific, and religious affairs. Keeping in mind all of the ways the writing systems impacted the Chinese people, it is notable to point out that the people also impacted the language itself. From the desire to want a larger vocabulary with the oracle bone script to the need for a script that the lower status people could use with the clerkly script, the people of ancient China helped drive the writing system through phases of development. With that development, the Chinese were able to use a standardized, intricate, and mature writing system as early as 500 BCE.

References

[1] Mark, Joshua. “Ancient China.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., 18 Dec. 2012. Web. 03 Feb. 2017.

[2] Mark, Emily. “Chinese Writing.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., 07 Apr. 2016. Web. 03 Feb. 2017.

[3] Mark, Emily. “Shang Dynasty” Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., 28 Jan. 2016. Web. 03 Feb. 2017.

[4] “Ancient Scripts: Chinese.” Ancient Scripts: Chinese. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.

[5] Violatti, Cristian. “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., 27 May 2013. Web. 10 Feb. 2017

[6] “Exploring Chinese History :: Culture :: Archaeology :: Neolithic and Bronze Age Cultures.” Exploring Chinese History :: Culture :: Archaeology :: Neolithic and Bronze Age Cultures. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.

[7] The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Dazhuan.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 06 Sept. 2002. Web. 05 Feb. 2017.

[8] “Five Original Writing Systems.” Five Original Writing Systems. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Feb. 2017.

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