In Chapter 5 of Kim Hall’s conceptual analysis of Shakespeare’s Othello, the author quotes Fancis Bacon disparaging romantic love stating, “The Stage is more beholding to Love, than the life of man…In life it doth much mischief: sometimes like a Siren; sometimes like a Fury” (Hall 327). This quotation embodies the view of love in early modern literature during Shakespeare’s era; it demonstrates the enjoyment within the relationship between mishap and romance, through the events of distances, illnesses, and chaos within the development of romantic relationships. This projection of love during the early modern era goes against the traditional and idolized view of love, dating back to Aristotle who ideally depicts love as “good” and “sublimely beautiful” (327). There was the common view held during this era that love solely based on sexual attraction or romantic inclination would result in unhappy marriages in comparison to virtuous love and emotional relations (327). This variance between physical attraction and emotional ties in a relationship often leads to instability, though, and can result in jealousy if there isn’t that balance between the two (328). Hall quotes Bacon again stating, “It is impossible to love, and to be wise”, and urges men in relationships to “…sever it wholly from their serious affairs and actions of life” (328). During this era, the question arose regarding the relation between love and jealousy; is jealousy a form of love or is it a mishap thrown into a pure emotion (328)? Authors during this era generally struggled to separate the two, with Benedetto Varchi defining jealousy as, “a kind of suspicious Care, or a careful kind of Suspicion” and Natasha Korda defining it as, “a symptom of the curiosity, greed, and covetousness that arise from the institution of private property” (328). These quotes demonstrate the era’s view on love and jealousy as intertwined emotions; one cannot experience the pure joys of virtuous love without the repercussions of lust and jealousy. This view is demonstrated in Shakespeare’s play Othello by depicting virtuous love and jealousy as specific characters and exhibiting the repercussion between the two through the characters’ interactions.

In Othello, Shakespeare exhibits this variance in types of love, desire versus virtue, through the characters Othello, Desdemona, and Iago; he demonstrates the difficulties of maintaining an emotional connection over physical desires through this relationship, and he encapsulates the negative view of love and jealousy in the early modern era through Iago’s conspiring nature. At the beginning of the play, Othello and Desdemona are ultimately defined by virtuous love instead of shallow attraction; they emphasize their efforts in virtuous love by de-emphasizing their physical desire (Hall 327). Othello describes to the Duke and Brabantio how he and Desdemona came to love each other and eventually marry, stating that she would inquire about his battles and experiences and grew to love him. Othello states, “She loved me for the dangers I had passed, And I loved her that she did pity them. This only is the witchcraft I have used” (Shakespeare I.iii. 169-171). This demonstrates the traditional perspective of love embodying the ideal emotional and virtuous connection between two individuals, untainted by chaos or instability. Desdemona equally demonstrates this ideal by touching upon her “duty” to both her father and her love for Othello;
I do perceive here a divided duty.
To you I am bound for life and education;
My life and my education both do learn me
How to respect you. You are the lord of duty;
I am hitherto your daughter. But here’s my husband,
And so much duty as my mother showed
To you, preferring you before her father,
So much I challenge that I may profess
Due to the Moor my lord. (I.iii. 183-191)
Desdemona further describes her love for Othello stating, “I saw Othello’s visage in his mind, And to his honors and his valiant parts Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate”, which shows how the connection between their “minds” is prioritized over physical and lustful attraction (I.iii. 254-256). Othello also comments on this connection between their “minds” stating, “But be free and bounteous to her mind” (I.iii. 268). Through these examples, Othello and Desdemona ultimately represent true and virtuous love, an ideal viewed with skepticism during the early modern era and which Shakespeare later obstructs by introducing Iago’s scheme to manipulate Othello’s insecurities.

Towards the climax of the play, Shakespeare intertwines Iago within the relationship between Othello and Desdemona to exhibit the factor of desire and jealousy within a pure and honorable relationship. Iago is quoted talking about his love for Desdemona, “Now, I do love her too, Not out of absolute lust…But partly led to diet by my revenge”, demonstrating that he represents this opposing force against virtuous love (Shakespeare II.i. 271-274). Iago then triggers that self-doubt within Othello by touching upon his physical aspects and forcing him to realize he doesn’t deserve Desdemona. Iago tactfully initiates this uncertainty in Othello by stating, “Oh, beware, my lord, of jealousy. It is the green-eyed monster, which doth mock The meat it feeds on. That cuckold lives in bliss Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger” (III.iii. 179-182). This forces Othello to identify his flaws in comparison to Desdemona, and question if he is truly worthy of her and her love; “Nor from mine own weak merits will I draw The smallest fear or doubt of her revolt, For she had eyes, and chose me” (III.iii. 202-204). This conversation between Iago and Othello regarding his suspicion of Desdemona and Cassio is the depiction of jealousy’s role in virtuous love; it is impossible to have one without the other and fostering the later will result in the downfall of an honest relationship, as seen at the end of the play.

Back in the early modern period, marriage was defined by competing motives of love and money, along with the competing interests of their significant others, families, and friends (Kaplan 311). Economic concerns were also significant factors when selecting suitability between a couple (311). Judgement of a couple from family and friends often came from class, property, and overall temperament of the couple (311). Laws and customs revolving around marriage in the early modern period prioritized the interests of men and often forced women into surrendering their legal identity for their spouses, demonstrating the limitations of female behavior, speech, and public involvement (311-313). Male obligations included consulting family and friends about possible suitors, marrying for moral reasons, and financially sustaining their families (312). Female obligations often included sustaining the household and fostering healthy families for the husband. Though marriage and partnership were viewed as fundamental building blocks within society during this period, same-sex friendships were frequently viewed as a more fundamental aspect to social order (312). Due to prominent segregation in social events and activities, these bonds of brotherhood often developed and surpassed family and spouse loyalties (312). Though marriage and homosociality competed for higher prioritization within society, the two social bonds provided means for developing social, economic, and political alliances during this era (312).

The primary differences between marriage and friendships during this period were defined as marriage securing financial and legal rights, and friendships embodying virtue and selflessness (Kaplan 315). Editor Lindsay Kaplan quotes Cicero’s treaty pertaining to the significance of friendship stating, “friends act without greed or foolhardiness and are characterized by liberality, constancy, and selflessness”, and that these bonds ultimately secure social order (315). Another quote mentioned in this chapter describes the bond between two friends, Titus and Gisippus: “…that they seemed to be on in form and personage,…[and] nature wrought in their hearts such a mutual affection, that their wills and appetites daily more and more…confederated themselves” (315, 318). These two quotes depict this commitment to friendship, demonstrating the emotional and personal connection in comparison to any relationship with a woman, and implying that marriage ultimately impedes these brotherly bonds (318). This tension between marriage and friendship is prevalent throughout Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice, specifically between Bassanio and Antonio. Shakespeare exhibits this competition between, “the emotional intensity of male bonds as they were fostered by Renaissance patriarchy and the necessity of marrying to acquire full status within that patriarchy” (318). Both Bassanio and Antonio represent the two competing arguments in this significant debate between marriage and friendship within the early modern era, and they demonstrate where this tension can foster conflict.

Within the competition between marriage and friendship for societal prioritization, Antonio best represents the argument for friendship through his sacrifices for Bassanio throughout the play. This can be seen through his commitment to finance Bassanio’s appeal to take Portia’s hand in marriage. Though there is much uncertainty surrounding his wealth coming back with his ships, Antonio is still committed to upholding this commitment to Bassanio and agrees to take out a loan from Shylock, who threatens Antonio’s life if reimbursement is not followed through. When speaking with Bassanio, Antonio states,
I pray you, good Bassanio, let me know it;
And if it stand, as you yourself still do,
Within the eye of honor, be assured
My purse, my person, my extremest means
Lie all unlocked to your occasions. (Shakespeare I.i.134-138)
This statement to Bassanio demonstrates Antonio’s commitment to their undying friendship and willingness to give up everything to ensure Bassanio’s happiness. Later in the play, Antonio realizes he won’t be able to pay off the loan immediately to Shylock and must face the repercussions specified. He states, “For if the Jew do cut but deep enough, It’ll pay it instantly with all my heart” (IV.i. 275-276). As seen in these examples, Antonio embodies the argument for homosociality within society simply by identifying his imminent outcome and stating it’ll be paid for with all his heart for Bassanio. Antonio furthers this divide between marriage and friendship by encouraging Bassanio to give up his ring from Portia as a token of gratitude stating, “My lord Bassanio, let him have the ring. Let his deservings and my love withal Be valued ‘gainst your wife’s commandment” (IV.i. 444-446).

Bassanio, on the other hand, depicts the prioritization of marriage within society during this era at the beginning of the play, but slowly transgresses to prioritize his relationship with Antonio towards the end of the play. Bassanio, when requesting money to court Portia, expresses his love for Antonio stating,
To you, Antonio;
I owe the most, in money and in love,
And from your love I have a warranty
To unburden all my plots and purposes
How to get clear of all the debts I owe. (Shakespeare I.i. 129-133)
Though he expresses his love and commitment to Antonio, he prioritizes Portia by borrowing money from Antonio which then places Antonio under Skylock’s jurisdiction. Later in the play during the Antonio’s trial, Bassanio states, “Good cheer, Antonio. What, man, courage yet! The Jew shall have my flesh, blood, bones, and all, Ere thou shalt lose for me one drop of blood (Shakespeare IV. i. 111-113). This demonstrates the progression from Bassanio’s commitment to Portia to his commitment to Antonio, going as far as promising his life. He also states that if Shylock does not take the loan paid ten times over, “On forfeit of my hands, my head, my heart (IV. i. 206-207). The progression of Bassonio’s commitment from marriage to friendship is ultimately depicted in his statement to Antonio where he claims that life and his wife are in no comparison to his commitment and bond with Antonio.
Antonio, I am married to a wife
Which is dear to me as life itself;
But life itself, my wife, and all the world
Are not with me esteemed above thy life.
I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all
Here to this devil, to deliver you. (IV.i. 277-282)
Towards the end of this scene, Bassanio hesitantly gives up his ring which Portia gave him as an embodiment of their commitment. Bassanio was encouraged by Antonio, displaying his prioritization of upholding his relationship with Antonio by abandoning his commitment to his wife. Based on the comparison of Antonio’s unyielding commitment to friendship and Bassanio’s slow conversion of priorities, one can assume that Shakespeare’s emphasis on friendships overrides the significance of marriage in this play, thus implying that the author may believe friendships play a greater role in upholding social order during this era.